MRes Philosophy of Knowledge: (slides available at cfpm/mres )

1. The Linguistic TurnTo what extent is knowledge in the use of language rather than what language is about? MRes Philosophy of Knowledge: (slides available at http://cfpm.org/mres) The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-1

2. An Example Conversation • How can we understand what is going on here? • Are we justified in imputing intentions, motivations etc. onto the participants? • Don’t we have to understand this as part of a “language game”? • Isn’t our response just part of a wider language game? Boss: Why are you late? Employee: Sorry, the traffic was terrible. Boss: But the traffic is always terrible, why don’t you start for work earlier? Employee: I put a lot into this company, I work later than most. Boss: We’ve all been waiting for you, the meeting started 20 minutes ago. Employee: Anyway, you were late last week. Boss: But that was unavoidable, my plane was delayed. The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-2

3. Basic Idea of the Linguistic Turn • That many problems of philosophy (and wider, the relation of meanings) are better considered as linguistic problems • For example: “Does God exist?” might be answered by exploring what was meant by “God” and “exist” (e.g. by looking at other sentences where these occur) • Marks a shift away from knowledge about an external world to how language works and is used The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-3

4. Some simple consequences of the linguistic turn • Issues of truth and knowledge are superseded by issues of usage and maybe meaning • Ideas and concepts (which, at best, are difficult to pin down) are replaced by considering linguistic examples • Philosophy is not (at all) outside the things it studies but very much part of it, since it is also (only) a linguistic activity The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-4

5. Analytic Linguistic Philosophy • It is claimed that many apparent problems in philosophy are merely the result of linguistic confusion (Ayer and after) • That the job of philosophy is to “dig down” into the meaning of words and hence clear up these linguistic confusions • Dummet’s fundamental axiom of analytical philosophy is that “the only route to the analysis of thought goes through the analysis of language” The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-5

6. Wittgenstein and Ordinary Language Philosophy • That (almost always) the meaning of a word is defined by its use in ordinary language • “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world” (Tractatus) • “the meaning of a word is its use in the language” (Philosophical Investigations) • “What we cannot speak about we must pass over in silence” (Tractatus) • Thus rejected any special role for philosophers in unearthing “true” meaning The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-6

7. More on Wittgenstein • Ordinary language is accepted as the given rather than idealised or ‘clarified’ • No such thing as a ‘private language’ • Original reference established by language use in context • Linguistic meaning often involves circular chains (or webs) of words and phrases • Considered how language is often used in “language games”, e.g. formal greetings The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-7

8. After Wittgenstein: Austin, Searle, Gardenförs etc. • Many utterances such as commands, expletives, questions etc. can not be understood as being either trueor false • Thus language is often better considered as just another form of action – a speech act • Action is primary, pragmatics consists of the rules for linguistic actions, semantics is conventionalised pragmatics and syntax adds markers to help disambiguation (when context does not suffice).Gardenförs The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-8

9. Influence of the linguistic turn in Social Science • Motivates a move away from finding the truth behind social situations (e.g. the intentions of participants) towards studying what people say and do • Social science concepts valued less for their representational properties as their ability to effect change when used • Academics seen not as outside their phenomena (as observers) but as participants involvedin the phenomena The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-9

10. Examples for Discussion • In small groups… • Choose some of the questions from Section A on the distributed sheet • Decide which come about because of confusions with/different uses of language • Could they be phrased differently to avoid problems with language? The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-10

11. Two incommensurable worlds? • That of narratives in language that relate to other language in an identifiable and richly meaningful (albeit subjective) way - the ‘qualitative’ • And that which can be represented as the results of (somewhat objective) measurements and other formal models– the ‘quantitative’ Can these paradigms be bridged by any means other than subsumption? The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-11

12. Is language self-contained? • If one asks for the meaning of a word what one is told is itself composed of language – this ‘move’ does not escape language • But if one asks for the meaning of a map and is told “Its a map of Australia”, does this imply that the meaning of this bit of paper is some words? • Do the great apes (who do not have a language) have no knowledge (e.g. when showing their offspring how to get ants out with a stick)? • Does this not ignore the fact that language is first learned by an infant who has none? The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-12

13. The Cognitive Turn • That since cognition comes before language that it is more basic • E.g. things that seem to be real for the great apes (objects, social relations etc.) seem to exist without language • Aspects of our psychology determine the shape of our thought and hence is the foundation of our knowledge • Thus attempts to reassert the philosophical concerns of belief, knowledge etc. The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-13

14. The Cultural Turn • Language is a part of culture – more, it is inextricably embedded in culture (although culture is primarily expressed using language). • Much cognition is also culture-dependent • Truth claims and other “meta-narratives” need to be critiqued in turns of the interests and power relations that underlie them • This is related to • Post-modernist philosophies • Femiminist philosophies The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-14

15. Post-modernism • A strong critique – that one cannot ignore the power relationships behind any text – questions of truth and power cannot be separated • Playfully “disrupts” received conceptions by exploring different meanings and interpretations of texts (deconstruction) • Often mixes in ideas/styles from different schools and eras • Has a strongly relativist flavour – “there is no meta-narrative” • Unclear as to what one can do The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-15

16. Feminism (as a philosophical position) • That the whole way in which argument and truth is dealt with is biased by the historical male domination and methods • In the past many conceptions/frameworks have been shown to be biased by culture • A whole range of positions within this • A denial of the right of one group to insist its version/framework about truth etc. is right • In style tends to use narrative, synthesis and example more than argument The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-16

17. Back to the nature of philosophy The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-17

18. A critical reflection on some characteristics of philosophy • Seeking abstract truths above or behind the world of contingencies and particularities… • …and the backlash against this. • The tendency to ‘seal off’ its issues from other concerns (making it its only critic) • The fact that philosophy is such an intensively linguistic activity • Shaped by ungainsayable ‘moves’ • An obsession with certainty and generality The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-18

19. What has been gained so far? • Some strong critiques, especially useful when applied to ones own work • An indication of some of the traps and dangers in some assumptions and approaches • Some different ways of reflecting about (or framing) issues • A (sub)language and a developed culture for talking about such issues The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-19

20. The Assignment The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-20

21. About the Assignment • It is meant to help you write your PhD thesis – if you can imagine that section of your thesis that deals with philosophical stance/issues this is what I want you to write • You need to (re)make your own ideas/arguments/position, showing independence and being critical • But it is a practice run – you will not be held to it, you can (indeed probably will) change you mind • A good assignment is strongly grounded in your own field (e.g. using examples from it) but relates/positions these within the positions/issues that are live in your area The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-21

22. Suggested tasks • Read articles that discuss the philosophical assumptions in your area (if they exist) and refer to them in your assignment • Decide what you think about the issues, but then make arguments supporting this • Think of weaknesses of positions, including your own (as well as strengths) • Identify the inconsistencies – not all positions are compatible with each other (you can’t just say I want a bit of everything without saying how this is possible) • Choose some concrete examples from your field of study of the issues you are discussing, to illustrate your points The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-22

23. What I do notwant… • An echoing back to me of my slides • Copy and paste from anything you have read • A summary of what your supervisor thinks What I do want… • Is for you to think the ideas our for yourself, afresh, even if this seems messy and unfinished • Your own expression of your ideas • Be critical about all approaches, including your own The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-23

24. Key Questions to Consider • What is the natureof the knowledge that youwill produce/present as the contribution your thesis makes? • What sort of claims do you make about this knowledge? How do you justify these? • What are the main philosophical issues that confront your research? • What are the main dividing lines in your area? How do you justify your choice between them? The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-24

25. To Guide you… • See http://cfpm.org/mres • There are a set of guidelines about the assignment, in case you feel you need them. • There are the specific criteria I use to structure my feedback to you. You may find it useful to read these and consider if they apply to your assignment. • But do not feel overwhelmed by these, they are there just because some people like them. The key questions are sorting out your ideas are what is most important. The Linguistic Turn. MMUBS Mres Epistemology, http://cfpm.org/~bruce slide-25