Two-Way Bilingual Education Conserving and Developing Language Resources

1. Two-Way Bilingual EducationConserving and Developing Language Resources James Crawford Institute for Language and Education Policywww.elladvocates.org February 21, 2008

2. Bilingual EducationKey Factors to Consider • Student characteristics • academic & language skills • sociolinguistic patterns • School capacity • research knowledge • program design • staff qualifications • Language attitudes • parent & community support • government policies

3. Politics vs. PedagogyAmerican Contradictions • Research increasingly shows benefits of bilingual education • academic, linguistic, social, economic • Policies are moving toward monolingual, English Only education • anti-immigrant politics on the rise • Despite decline, bilingual education remains widespread, relative to most countries • 15% of 5m English learners vs. 37% in 1992

4. English Language LearnersA Growing Population, 1992-2006

5. Bilingual Education in U.S.Declining Enrollments, 1992-2006

6. Language PoliciesU.S. Attitudes toward Diversity • Pretend that it doesn’t exist • “sink or swim” treatment – no special help • See it as temporary problem • “transitional” bilingual education • Treat it as a threat • English Only requirements in several states • Recognize it as a resource • “developmental” and two-way bilingual education

7. Immigration & LanguageRecent Growth U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1960 – 2006

8. Immigration & LanguageHistoric Patterns U.S. Foreign-Born Population, 1850 – 2006

9. Language DiversityContradictory Trends • Rapid increase in speakers of non-English languages • 400+ languages reported in 2000 Census • immigration is main factor in growth in minority-language speakers, especially Spanish • Rapid acquisition of English by immigrants • Anglicization at record rates, historically • rapid loss of heritage languages

10. Demographic ChangeIncreasing Bilingualism, 1980 – 2006 Speakers of Languages Other Than English at Home and English-Speaking Ability (percentages, age 5+)

11. Language UsageSecond-Generation Immigrant Youth English & Heritage-Language Proficiency Ages 13-15 (percentages) Source: Portes & Hao (2002)

12. Bilingual EducationHistoric Evolution • Widespread in 19th century America • authorized by law in 12 states, including Ohio (1839), Louisiana (1847) • non-English groups had local majorities • 1900: 4% in German-English • Rationale • language, cultural maintenance • English-speaking teachers unavailable • Mostly eliminated by 1919 • coercive assimilation, immigration restriction • English-only instruction laws

13. Bilingual EducationModern Era • 1967: Bilingual Education Act • civil-rights basis • “transitional” goals: English, academics in English • 1974: Lau v. Nichols decision • addressing diverse needs • trial and error in program design • 1980s: “developmental” bilingual education • goals: academics in English, bilingualism/biliteracy • research found superior results • 1990s: rapid growth of two-way models

14. ResearchFindings on 2nd Language Acquisition • ‘Comprehensible input’ hypothesis (Krashen) • use of L2 for communication vs. sink or swim • Interdependence hypothesis (Cummins) • L1 supports L2 • transfer of knowledge & skills • Academic language, conversational language • 4-9 years for L2 learners to catch up • ‘age on arrival’ studies

15. Which Programs Work Best?Findings of 3 Major Reviews • Bilingual models are consistently more effective than all-English models • the more rigorous the study, the more positive effects for bilingual programs • Larger positive effects are documented in ‘developmental’ bilingual education • one-way & two-way support English, heritage language, AND academic achievement in English • bilingualism & biliteracy Sources: Rolstad, Mahoney & Glass (2005), Slavin & Cheung (2005), August & Shanahan (2006)

16. Evolution of Two-Way BEProgram Experience in Canada, U.S. • French immersion • English speakers in Quebec • alternative to traditional foreign-language teaching • goal: fluent bilingualism at no cost to academics • Developmental (one-way) bilingual education • ‘gradual exit’ model for language-minority students • goal: academic progress at no cost to bilingualism • Two-way bilingual models • 90/10 vs. 50/50 use of languages

17. Growth of Two-Way BE1962 – 2007

18. Profile of Two-Way BEProgram Data • Relatively few programs • 332 in entire U.S., most in elementary schools • Spanish, French, Korean, Cantonese, Mandarin, Navajo, Japanese, German • Students • no enrollment data; estimate: 50-75,000 • class differences between majority/minority speakers • Sociolinguistic context • bilingual homes, communities • English-dominant communities

19. Profile of Two-Way BEProgram Variations • 90/10 or 80/20 model • minority language for academics in early years • English phased in to 50/50 by year 4 or 5 • 50/50 model • parent concerns • parity of languages in all grades • Language arts instruction • heterogeneous grouping: some programs separate groups for L1 language-arts classes • Teachers • in 50% of programs, teachers are fully bilingual • most alternate between classes, maximizing staff

20. Research on Two-Way BELimited Data • Few conclusive studies • most do not control for socioeconomic variables • selection bias • Promising results • minority language speakers do well academically, acquire native-like English • English speakers excel academically but may reach less than native-like oral proficiency in L2 • no clear advantage for 90/10 or 50/50 for minority group; 90/10 superior for majority group

21. Two-Way Bilingual EducationStudent Outcomes • Academic achievement • superior for language-majority but lag in L1 • relative advantage for language minority group • Bilingualism, biliteracy • oral proficiency gains greater for minority group • Positive attitudes toward cultural diversity • also: toward target language, other language group • For minority language group: • greater self-esteem, academic expectations • fewer identity conflicts

22. Two-Way Bilingual Education Challenges • Making instruction comprehensible • varying L2 proficiency, academic level • ‘immersion,’ sheltered instruction • Ensuring parent/community support • explaining program goals • responding to misunderstandings, fears, prejudices • Dealing with power relationships • serving both groups equitably • ensuring equal status of languages

23. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Long-term approach • 4-6 years to achieve goals • Parity of languages, language groups • at least 50% usage of minority language • peer models • maximizing interaction among language groups

24. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Additive bilingual environment • ‘empowerment’ approach • respect for both languages • languages as resources • cooperative learning, group work

25. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Professional development of staff • planning/training year • theories of second-language acquisition • language education pedagogy • assessment • partnerships with institutions, experts

26. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Curriculum & instruction • challenging academically • tailored to students’ language level • teachers with native-like proficiency • L2 taught primarily through academics, combined with some direct instruction • initial literacy in minority language • L1 language arts

27. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Assessment • authentic, understood by staff • academic vs. language assessment • multiple indicators • diagnostic role for individual students • serves program planning, goals

28. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Effective leadership • training in theory, pedagogy • staff support, coordination • planning, curriculum development • integration within larger school • ambassador for program to parents, communities

29. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Parent involvement • program goals, expectations • student performance data • out-of-school support • resolving conflicts

30. Two-Way Bilingual Education Principles for Success • Program evaluation • monitoring student progress • rectifying mistakes • considering parent/community views • redesigning program

31. Bilingualism Benefits for Individuals • Cognitive advantages • metalinguistic awareness • executive control, working memory • limiting effects of aging • Career opportunities • need for bilingual skills, higher incomes • Social adjustment • identity construction, educational aspirations • Family relationships • minimizing conflicts

32. Bilingualism Benefits for Society • Economic edge • trade, development assistance • Cultural vitality • enhancing arts, learning, expression • Ethnic harmony • protecting rights, limiting conflicts • National security • dealing with a dangerous world • Global understanding • climate change, public health, education

33. Resources Institute for Language and Education Policy www.elladvocates.org Center for Applied Linguistics www.cal.org/twi California Association for Bilingual Education www.bilingualeducation.org/2waycabe Dual Language of New Mexico www.dlenm.org