Environmental Ethics and Ecological Footprint

1. Agenda: Week 2 • Concepts: Ecological footprint, Environmental ethics, movements, economics, and policies • Start ecocolumns experimental design and construction • Test ch 1-3 (Withgott) • Science articles • HOMEWORK: • footprint calculations p27 handout • Read pages 32-43, 59-61, and 66-75

2. Environmental ethics • Environmental ethics = application of ethical standards to relationships between human and non-human entities • Hard to resolve; depends on the person’s ethical standards • Depends on the person’s domain of ethical concern Is is OK to destroy a forest to create jobs for people? Should we conserve resources for future generations? Is it OK for some communities to be exposed to excess pollution? Should humans drive other species to extinction?

3. We have expanded our ethical consideration • To include animals, communities, nature

4. Expanding ethical concern • Why have we expanded our ethical concerns? • Economic prosperity: more leisure time, less anxieties • Science: interconnection of all organisms • Non-western cultures often have broader ethical domains • Three perspectives in Western ethics • Anthropocentrism = only humans have rights • Biocentrism = certain living things also have value • Ecocentrism = whole ecological systems have value • Holistic perspective, stresses preserving connections

5. Western ethical expansion

6. History of environmental ethics • People have questioned our relationship with the environment for centuries • Christianity’s attitude towards the environment • Anthropocentric hostility, or • Stewardship? • The Industrial Revolution increased consumption and pollution • People no longer appreciated nature • Transcendentalism = nature is a manifestation of the divine • Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau

7. The preservation ethic- pristine, unaltered state • Unspoiled nature should be protected for its own inherent value • John Muir (1838-1914) (right, with President Roosevelt at Yosemite National Park) had an ecocentric viewpoint

8. Environmental justice (EJ) • The poor and minorities are exposed to more pollution, hazards, and environmental degradation 75% of toxic waste landfills in the southeastern U.S. are in communities with higher racial minorities

9. Environmental justice and Native Americans From 1948 to the 1960s, Navajo miners were not warned of radiation risks, nor provided protection by the industry or the U.S. government

10. The conservation ethic • Use natural resources wisely for the greatest good for the most people • Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946) had an anthropocentric viewpoint

11. The land ethic • Healthy ecological systems depend on protecting all parts • Aldo Leopold (1887-1949), believed the land ethic changes the role of people from conquerors of the land to citizens of it

12. Deep ecology, ecofeminism, and justice • Deep ecology = humans are inseparable from nature • Since all living things have equal value, they should be protected • Ecofeminism = male-dominated societies have degraded women and the environment through fear and hate • Female worldview = cooperation • Environmental justice = the fair and equitable treatment of all people regarding environmental issues • Wealthy nations dump hazardous waste in poorer nations with uninformed residents

13. Economics studies how people use resources to provide goods and services in the face of demand • Friction occurs between people’s ethical and economic impulses • Is there a trade-off between economics and the environment? • Generally, environmental protection is good for the economy • Most environmental and economic problems are linked • Root “oikos” gave rise to both ecology and economics

14. Environmental systems support economies • Ecosystem services (Table 2.2) = essential services support the life that makes economic activities possible *Soil formation *Pollination *Water purification *Nutrient cycling *Climate regulation *Waste treatment • Economic activities affect the environment • Deplete natural resources • Produce too much pollution

15. Government intervenes in a market economy • Even in capitalist market economies, governments intervene to: • Eliminate unfair advantages • Provide social services • Provide safety nets • Manage the commons • Mitigate pollution

18. Valuing ecosystems goods and services • Our society mistreats the very systems that sustain it • The market ignores/undervalues ecosystem values • Nonmarket values = values not included in the price of a good or service

19. Environmental view of economics • Human economies exist within, and depend on, the environment • Without natural resources, there would be no economies

20. Types of modern economies • Economy = a social system that converts resources into • Goods: manufactured materials that are bought, and • Services: work done for others as a form of business • Subsistence economy = people get their daily needs directly from nature; they do not purchase or trade • Capitalist market economy = buyers and sellers interact to determine prices and production of goods and services • Centrally planned economy = the government determines how to allocate resources • Mixed economy = governments intervene to some extent

21. A steady state economy • As resources became harder to find, economic growth slows and stabilizes (John Stuart Mill, 1806-1873) • We must rethink our assumptions and change our way of economic transactions • This does not mean a lower quality of life • Economies are measured in various ways • Gross Domestic Product (GDP) = total monetary value of final goods and services produced • Does not account for nonmarket values • Pollution increases GDP

22. GPI: An alternative to the GDP (introduced in 1995 by Non-profit Redefining Progress) • Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI) = differentiates between desirable and undesirable economic activity • Positive contributions (i.e. volunteer work) not paid for with money are added to economic activity • Negative impacts (crime, pollution) are subtracted In the U.S., GDP has risen greatly, but not GPI

23. Marginal benefit and cost curves • Cost-benefit analysis = the costs of a proposed action are compared to the benefits that result from the action • If benefits > costs: pursue the action • Not all costs and benefits can be identified Marginal benefit and cost curves determine an “optimal” level of resource use or pollution mitigation

24. Costs and benefits are experienced by the buyer and seller alone Do not affect other members of the society Pricing ignores social, environmental or economic costs Externalities = costs or benefits involving people other than the buyer or seller External costs = borne by someone not involved in a transaction Human health problems Resource depletion Hard to account for and eliminate How do you assign monetary value to illness? MARKET FAILURE= government did not account for these costs. Solution= GREEN TAXES charge for external costs Assumption: Costs and benefits are internal

25. Environmental policy and equity • Free Riders = reducing pollution tempts any one person to cheat • Private voluntary efforts are less effective than mandated efforts • External Cost = harmful impacts result from market transaction but are borne by people not involved in the transaction Environmental policy goals = protect resources against the tragedy of the commons and to promote equity by eliminating free riders and addressing external costs

26. Another economic policy tool • Green taxes = taxes on environmentally harmful activities • Polluter pays principle = the price of a good or service includes all costs, including environmental degradation • Gives companies financial incentives to reduce pollution • But, costs are passed on to consumers

27. Market permitting and incentives • Permit trading = government-created market in permits • Businesses buy, sell, trade these permits • Emissions trading system = government-issued permits for an acceptable amount of pollution and companies buy, sell, or trade these permits with other polluters • Cap-and-trade system = a party that reduces its pollution levels can sell this credit to other parties • Pollution is reduced overall, but does increase around polluting plants • Companies have an economic incentive to reduce emissions

28. Markets can fail • Market failure = markets do not account for the environment’s positive impacts • Markets do not reflect the negative effects of activities on the environment or people (external costs) • Government intervention counters market failure • Laws and regulations • Green taxes = penalize harmful activities • Economic incentives to promote conservation and sustainability

29. Ecolabeling addresses market failures • The market can be used to counter market failure • Create markets in permits • Ecolabeling = tells consumers which brands use sustainable processes • A powerful incentive for businesses to switch to better processes • “Dolphin safe” tuna • Socially responsible investing in sustainable companies

30. Corporations are responding to concerns • Industries, businesses, and corporations can make money by “greening” their operations • Local sustainably oriented businesses are being started • Large corporations are riding the “green wave” of consumer preference for sustainable products • Nike, Gap • Be careful of greenwashing, where consumers are misled into thinking companies are acting sustainably

31. Conclusion • Recent developments have brought economic approaches to bear on environmental protection and conservation • Environmental ethics has expanded people’s ethical considerations • Economic welfare can be enhanced without growth, resulting in economic health and environmental quality

32. QUESTION: Review An ecocentric worldview would consider the impact of an action on… ? a) Humans only b) Animals only c) Plants only d) All living things e) All nonliving things

33. QUESTION: Review Which ethic holds that healthy ecosystems depend on the protection of all their parts? a) Preservation ethic b) Land ethic c) Conservation ethic d) Deep ecology e) Biocentrism

34. QUESTION: Review Which of the following is an ecosystem service? a) Water purification in wetlands b) Climate regulation in the atmosphere c) Nutrient cycling in ecosystems d) Waste treatment by bacteria e) All of the above

35. QUESTION: Review Which is NOT an assumption of neoclassical economics that can lead to environmental degradation? a) Resources are limited b) Long-term effects are downplayed c) All costs and benefits are experienced by the buyer and seller alone d) Growth isgood

36. QUESTION: Review Which of the following statements would be spoken by an ecological economist? a) The current economic system is working fine b) The current economic system simply needs to be fine-tuned c) The current economic system is broken and a new one needs to be developed d) Economic systems never work

37. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data a) When supply exceeds demand b) When demand exceeds supply c) By demand when quantity is low, and supply when quantity is high d) When supply equals demand Market equilibrium, which sets the price of a product, is reached …

38. QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data a) GDP has not really increased since 1950 b) Although we are spending more money, our lives are not much better c) We are spending less money, and our lives are much better d) The GPI is not as accurate as GDP Which conclusion can you draw from this graph?

39. QUESTION: Viewpoints Think of an issue in your community that could pit environmentalists against economic development. What do you think should prevail: environmental protection or economic development? a) Economic growth; we need the jobs b) Environmental protection; we need the environment • Both; a compromise must be reached • Whatever costs the taxpayers the least

40. QUESTION: Viewpoints What entities do you include in your domain of ethical concern? a) Humans only b) Humans and pets • Humans, pets, and other animals • Humans, pets, other animals, and nature

41. Culture and worldview • Our relationship with the environment depends on assessments of costs and benefits • Culture and worldview also affects this relationship • Culture = knowledge, beliefs, values, and learned ways of life shared by a group of people • Worldview = a person’s or group’s beliefs about the meaning, purpose, operation, and essence of the world Culture and worldview affect our perception of the environment and environmental problems

42. Worldviews differ among people • Different worldviews result in different perceptions • Aborigines saw the negative environmental impacts of the Jabiluka mine • Others saw jobs, income, and energy from the mine

43. Many factors shape worldviews • Religions • Communities • Political ideology • Economics • Individual interests • Vested interest = an individual with strong interests in the outcome of a decision that results in gain or loss for that individual

44. Ethics • Ethics = the study of good and bad, right and wrong • Relativists = ethics varies with social context • Universalists = right and wrong remains the same across cultures and situations • Ethical standards = criteria that help differentiate right from wrong • Classical standard = virtue • The golden rule • Utility = something right produces the most benefits for the most people

45. John Rushkin (1819-1900) “little more than laboratoires for the distillation into heaven of venomous smokes and smells”

46. Conventional view of economics • Conventional economics focuses on production and consumption • Ignores the environment • The environment is an external “factor of production”

47. Neoclassical economics • Examines the psychological factors underlying consumer choices • Market prices are explained in terms of consumer preferences • Buyers vs. sellers • The “right” quantities of a product are produced The market favors equilibrium between supply and demand

48. Classical economics • Competition between people free to pursue their own economic self-interest will benefit society as a whole (Adam Smith, 1723-1790) • The market is guided by an “invisible hand” • This idea is a pillar of free-market thought today • It is also blamed for economic inequality • Laissez-Faire (let people do as they choose) • Rich vs. poor • Critics think that market capitalism should be restricted by government

49. Assumption: Resources are infinite • Economic models treat resources as substitutable and interchangeable • A replacement resource will be found • But, Earth’s resources are limited • Nonrenewable resources can be depleted • Renewable resources can also be depleted • For example, Easter Islanders destroyed their forests

50. Enormous wealth and jobs are generated Environmental problems are also created Assumptions of neoclassical economics: Resources are infinite or substitutable Costs and benefits are internal Long-term effects are discounted Growth is good Neoclassical economics