The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic Review

1. The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic Review Counseling the Procrastinator in Academic SettingsPiers Steelwww.procrastinus.com Piers Steel

2. Overview • Study details • Procrastination findings • Procrastination and performance • Weak correlates • Strong correlates • Traits & tasks • Theory of procrastination • Treatment implications Piers Steel

3. Study Details • Almost 500 studies have been written that deal with procrastination directly • These studies contain over 600 relevant correlations • Key terms: • K = Number of Samples/Studies Conducted • N = Total Sample Size • Correlations Effect Size • Weak  .20 • Medium  .30 • Large  .40 Piers Steel

4. Definition of Procrastination • Three key components: • Overwhelmingly referred to as a negative phenomenon – often seen as irrational • We delay voluntarily, it is our choice • We intend to do the task, not to avoid it entirely • To voluntarily delay an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse-off for the delay Piers Steel

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7. Procrastination & Performance • Over all, a weak (r=-.19, K=34, N=6,295) but consistently negative relationship with academic criteria (e.g., GPA, Exam, etc.) • Procrastination is usually harmful, sometimes harmless, but never helpful • More serious results for financial/career performance • Correlations are negative and moderate to strong in strength Piers Steel

8. Weak Correlates • These relationships have long been suspected of being major causes of procrastination • Rebelliousness, Sensation-Seeking, Neuroticism, and Irrational beliefs • Results here indicate, however, that they generally either are : • Weak causes of procrastination • Strong causes only for a small percentage of people Piers Steel

9. Rebelliousness • Theory • Externally imposed schedules are more likely experienced as aversive, and thus avoided. Also, by delaying work and starting it on one’s own schedule, autonomy is reasserted. • Results (K=21, N=4,350) • Almost no support • Correlations extremely weak • Except for adolescents, few report it as a reason Piers Steel

10. Sensation-Seeking • Theory • People high in this trait are easily bored and long for excitement, and thus they may intentionally put off work to feel the tension of working close to a deadline. • Results (K=9, N=1,810) • Almost no support • Correlations extremely weak • Few endorse it as a reason Piers Steel

11. Neuroticism: Anxiety • Theory • People procrastinate on tasks because they are more susceptible to experiencing stress and thus find them more stressful • Results (K=44, N=8,540) • Little support • Correlations mostly weak and where strong, due to impulsiveness • Procrastination seems to cause anxiety, not vice-versa Piers Steel

12. Irrational Beliefs • Theory • Acts similarly to neuroticism. These beliefs create anxiety and thus make certain tasks unpleasant. • Results (K=65, N=12,072) • Little support • Correlations mostly weak, except for general irrational beliefs where it may be moderate • Fear of failure and perfectionism are extremely low • Self-perfectionists actually may be less likely to procrastinate Piers Steel

13. Strong Correlates • These relationships are generally more recently seen as major causes of procrastination • Traits: Self-Efficacy, Energy, Impulsiveness & Self-Discipline, Achievement Motivation • Task Characteristics: Aversiveness, Delay • Results here indicate they either describe or cause procrastination Piers Steel

14. Low Self-Efficacy & Self-Esteem • Theory • Related to irrational beliefs in that people may doubt their ability to do well • Results (K=26, N=4,217; K=33, N=5,846) • Good support • For self-efficacy, strong correlations. Helps to explain the moderate relationship sometimes seen with irrational belief inventories. • For self-esteem, moderate to weak correlations Piers Steel

15. Depression & Energy • Theory • Related to irrational beliefs and low self-efficacy. Burka and Yuen (1983) also discuss how it is harder to initiate tasks when we are tired. • Results (K=53, N=10,233) • Moderate support • Depressed people are more pessimistic about outcomes. • They are lethargic and thus more likely to find energy-intensive tasks unpleasant. Piers Steel

16. Impulsiveness & Self-Discipline • Theory • Impulsive people may be more likely to procrastinate as they are beset with desires of the moment and focus their attention upon them. • Results (K=17, N=3,190; K=18, N=3,877) • Very strong support • Procrastinators tend to show an intention-action gap, indicating an impulsive shift in motivation • They tend to choose short-term benefits over long-term gains, reflecting a core component of poor self-regulation Piers Steel

17. Need for Achievement • Theory • Those high in achievement motivation set more difficult goals for themselves, find work to be intrinsically engaging and thus necessarily less aversive. • Results (K=38, N=6,136) • Strong support • Large (approximately .50) correlations Piers Steel

18. Task Aversiveness: Trait & State • Theory • We seek to avoid aversive stimuli, and consequently, the more aversive the situation, the more likely we are to avoid it (e.g., procrastinate). • Results (K=10, N=1,069; K=8, N=938) • Very strong support for both state and trait types: • Aversive tasks tend to be procrastinated. People who find tasks aversive, tend to be procrastinators • Researched with a variety of methodologies • Especially susceptible for boring or frustrating jobs Piers Steel

19. Task Delay • Theory • The further away an event is temporally, the less impact it has upon our decisions • Results (not correlational) • Very strong support from a variety of fields (e.g., economics, behaviorism) • Students indicate that they would be less likely to procrastinate as a deadline approaches Piers Steel

20. Theory of Procrastination • Big findings • Impulsiveness, Self-Discipline, Task delay • Indicates time a factor • Energy, Need for Achievement, Task Aversiveness • Indicates value/valence a factor • Self-Efficacy, Self-Confidence • Indicates expectancy a factor Piers Steel

21. Theory of Procrastination • Any one of these variables can exacerbate procrastination • This includes having an alternative course of action nearby that is evaluated more favorable Piers Steel

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23. Treatment • Need for a diagnostic procedure. • There are many possible causes of procrastination and then many different supporting factors • It may be expectancy, impulsiveness, task aversiveness, or some combination • For any specific factor, we need to learn why • For example, if task aversiveness is driving the procrastination for one individual, we still need to learn why he or she finds it unpleasant • For some, though not many, it will be because they are rebellious or have specific irrational beliefs Piers Steel

24. General Treatment Goals • Reduce the aversiveness of the task • Increase competence with the task • Improve self-regulatory skills (e.g., organization, planning) to decrease impulsiveness • Distance temptations Piers Steel

25. Treatments • Techniques that likely will be broadly successful are: • Energy Regulation • Goal Setting • Specific, Proximal, Challenging • Stimulus Control • Routine Building Piers Steel

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27. Final Thought: Procrastination Rising • We have been formally measuring procrastination since 1978 • It has been significantly rising over the last 25 years, as has debt, obesity and other impulse related issues • The need for effective treatments has never been greater than now Piers Steel