COM342 Networks and Data Communications

COM342Networks and Data Communications Lecture 3: The Physical layer Ian McCrum Room 5B18 Tel: 90 366364 voice mail on 6th ring Email: IJ.McCrum@Ulster.ac.uk Web site: http://www.eej.ulst.ac.uk www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Today physical media: • Serial and Parallel connections • Connectors • Cables Coaxial, twisted pair • Optical fibers • Radio waves www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Modes of serial data transfer • Simplex communications • Unidirectional data path from transmitter to receiver in the manner of radio broadcasts • Half Duplex • Unidirectional at any one time in the manner of a conversation over radio link with change of direction signaled by ‘over’. • Full Duplex • two computers using two comms channels one for transmission and one for reception both working simultaneously. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Parallel data transfer • Most data in the form of bytes or wider. • Transfer all of the bits at the same time however one conductor for each bit, more copper etc. suitable for short distances and very high data rates, used inside computer where groups of conductors are called busses . • synchronisation between each bit on different conductors becomes difficult specially as distance increases due to tiny differences between conductors and their environment. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Serial slower but cheaper www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Connectors and cables • Standards… often specify details • D-type 25way used for RS232 serial links in old days (and in the “official standard”) Modern usage dictated by PC design … 9 pin D-type connector • consider computer- modem cable with straight through cable connecting DTE and DCE. Necessary because uni-directional line drivers all that were available in the old days… • RJ45 • telephone type connectors. • Ribbon Cables and IDC connectors • Network connectors and cables www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Cables for data transmission www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Typical Coaxial connection www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Benefits of coaxial and Twisted pair • Shielding against induced noise. • Common mode rejection. • Speeds of each (cat 5e 100m bits/sec) www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Twisted Pair (a) Category 3 UTP. (b) Category 5 UTP. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Coaxial Cable A coaxial cable. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Fiber Cables (a) Side view of a single fiber. (b) End view of a sheath with three fibers. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Fiber Optic Networks A fiber optic ring with active repeaters. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Fibre optic cable is available in three basic forms: • Stepped-index fibre. In this type of fibre, the core has a uniform refractive index throughout. This generally has a core diameter of to . This is a multi-mode fibre. Stepped-index fibre www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Graded-index fibre. In this type of fibre, the core has a refractive index that gradually decreases as the distance from the centre of the fibre increases. This generally has a core diameter of . This is a multi-mode fibre. Graded-index fibre www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Mono-mode fibre. As the name suggests, the distinguishing characteristic of this fibre is that allows only a single ray path. The radius of the core of this type of fibre is much less than that of the other two, however it does have a uniform refractive index. From, 1 to 3, we find that the cost of production increases, the complexity of transmitter and receiver increases, while the dispersion decreases. This latter property change means that the mono-fibre also has the potential to provide greater bandwidth. As it becomes cheaper to produce mono-mode fibre technology, we will see an increased use of this type of optical fibre www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Fiber Optics (a) Three examples of a light ray from inside a silica fiber impinging on the air/silica boundary at different angles. (b) Light trapped by total internal reflection. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Transmission of Light through Fiber Attenuation of light through fiber in the infrared region. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Fiber Cables A comparison of semiconductor diodes and LEDs as light sources. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Optical fibre is a waveguide. The fibre (in its simplest form) consists of a core of glass of one refractive index, and a cladding of a slightly lower refractive index (Figure ). The fibre is then surrounded by a refractive sheath. Typical fibre dimensions are to diameter. The basic structure of a fibre optic waveguide www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

In simple terms, the action of a waveguide can be partially understood by considering the rays down the fibre. A light-wave entering the fibre is either refracted into the cladding, and attenuated, or is totally internally reflected at the core/cladding boundary. In this manner it travels along the length of the fibre. The maximum angle at which it may enter the guide and travel by total internal reflection is termed the acceptance angle It is also possible for the wave to follow a helical path down the guide. These rays are called skew-rays. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

However, this view is too simple to explain all features of waveguide behaviour. In fact, it is not possible for the wave to take any ray down the guide. Only certain rays can be taken. These rays are called modes. For any particular frequency, there is a different ray. The modal action of a waveguide is a consequence of the wave nature of the radiation. A mono-mode fibre is a fibre that only has one acceptable ray-path per frequency. A multi-mode fibre has a number of possible rays that light of a particular frequency may take. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Sin = Sin Snell’s Law y 1 2 n www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

as then Total Internal Reflection y 1 2 n www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

From the diagram n1 is greater than n2 so decreases as decreases , until as for a finite value of . is now the critical angle beyond which Total Internal Reflection occurs and www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

y Light Acceptance cone 1 2 n as then when Snell is applied therefore the light acceptance cone is www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Propagation of light by total internal refection c a l See attenuation profile Fig 2.6 A.T. and then Fig 2.7 for fibre construction www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Copper v F.O. • repeaters 5km • reactive • E.M. R.F. problems • bulky • tappable • repeaters 30km • relatively inert • no E.M. R.F. problems • >bandwidth in duct • no tapping www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Wireless Tx • Wavelength* frequency = speed of light • therefore Atlantic 252 where the 252 refers to the frequency in kilohertz .. leads to the wavelength being 1190m long where the speed of light is taken to be 300,000,000 m/s www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Variety see Fig 2.11 for spectrum • Radio VLF,LW,MW 9kHz bandwidth, long dist, earth hugging Fig 2.12 • Radio HF,VHF various bandwidths, straight lines and ionosphere bounce up to 60MHz • Microwave line of sight, large bandwidths (418MHz) • Infra Red line of sight, good for LAN in rooms • Light - building to building good bandwidth Fig 2.13 www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Communication Satellites • Geostationary Satellites • Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites • Low-Earth Orbit Satellites • Satellites versus Fiber www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Communication Satellites Communication satellites and some of their properties, including altitude above the earth, round-trip delay time and number of satellites needed for global coverage. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Communication Satellites (2) The principal satellite bands. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Communication Satellites (3) VSATs using a hub. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Globalstar (a) Relaying in space. (b) Relaying on the ground. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Telephone system for data comms: • Why telephone system for data communications • Structure of PSTN • How it can carry digital data www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Public Switched Telephone Network • It exists everywhere and is relatively cheap to establish contact • It is slow and error prone. • It is improving rapidly and costs are falling • allows access for many home users to Internet and enables home working. • Vast investment • Relies on Circuit switching www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

PSTN Structure • pairs of handsets therefore a conductor per pair, n houses implied n conductors! Fig2.14a • first manual centralised switching office with jumpers being placed by operators Fig2.14b • the interconnection of switching offices(cities) led to the same problem one conductor per office pair same problems as fig 2.14a • hierarchy developed as in fig 2.14c www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

PSTN Structure Fig 2.15 • Subscriber linked to local exchange by local loop by a pair of copper wires, distance can be small or up to many kilometres. • thus a local call is switched with the local exchange. • Local exchanges are connected by trunk lines in an ascending hierarchy. • medium and long distance calls are carried on multiplexed high bandwidth links and managed through switching higher up the hierarchy. • International connections demand interfaces and standardisation www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Transmission • Local loops consist of twisted pairs and signalling is analogue. • trunks are higher bandwidth and employ co-axial(ageing), microwave and fibre optics. This uses multiplexing for analogue(ageing) and digital signals. • Amplification of an analogue signal can also amplify the noise arising as it propagates thus noise can predominate over a long connection. • Amplification of a digital signal is merely the regeneration of the original digital signal, thus only noise is that which was originally present. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Digital v Analogue • Digital -Predictable attenuation therefore regenerators can be reliably sited to restore the signal to either 0 or 1, therefore no loss of signal even over long distances c.f. international telephone calls. • Analogue amplification is imperfect and cumulative over long distances. • Many sources can produce digital signals using the same connections • Data rates are increasing • digital is cheaper • digital more readily maintained. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Transmission and reception • Attenuation, loss in signal strength, increases as a proportion to the length of conductor. dB/km. varies with wavelength distorts wave shape. • delay distortion also varies with wavelength, overlaps different bits, can limit bandwidth. • noise, random and burst. • crosstalk www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

Modem • MOdulator DEModulator • Change a wave in such a manner that the changes represent another signal • recognise the changes in the received wave and deduce what the modulating signal was. • falling prices. • high speeds. www.eej.ulster.ac.uk/~ian/modules/COM342/COM342_L3.ppt

COM342 Networks and Data Communications