Memory….

1. Memory….

2. HW Read Crane 67 – 72- recap on principles and schema theory- prepare questions for Monday

3. MODELS OF MEMORY The IB Syllabus says: • Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies. • For this section we will be evaluating TWO MODELS OF MEMORY these have been developed by cognitive psychologists to explain how memory works These are the two main models of memory we will be studying for this topic: • Multi-store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) • Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1971)

4. Principles Demonstrated in research into Models of Memory: • Mental processes can and should be scientifically investigated. • Models of psychological functions can be proposed. • Cognitive processes actively organize and manipulate information that we receive - humans are not passive responders to their environment. (Soft determinism.)

5. Memory • Definition:The mental processes involved in storing and retrieving information • Essential Questions: • How does our mind organize data? • How do psychologists study memory?

6. "I went to the moon..." • Groups ...discuss and answer questions • What memory cues/aids to memory did you have in the activity? • Why were many of you unable to repeat the item of the person who had gone immediately before you? • Can you suggest any hints for improving memory? • Video clip.

7. Introduction to memory - PPT • Encoding and Storage PPTs • List tips you would give someone who would want to improve their memory. Focus on effective ways to encode information. • What affects storage? Duration and capacity (Atkinson and Shriffin) or type of encoding (Craik & Lockhart)?

8. The Multi-store Model • Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) presented the Multi-store model of memory system proposes that: • Memory consists of three separate stores and a key aspect of the model is a clear distinction between STM & LTM • Their model arose from the information processing approach where memory is characterized as a flow of information through a system • The system is divided into stages and information passes through the stages in a fixed sequence. • There are capacity and duration limitations at each stage, and each stage may require recoding.

9. Identify any of the principles of the CLOA in the model. List studies related to the multi-memory store. Crane 72 & 73

10. The Multi-store Model: How it works… • Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) proposed that external stimuli from the environment first enter sensory memory (visual encoding) where they can be registered for very brief periods of time before decaying or being passed on to the short term store. • They believe that memory traces in the short term store are encoded in the form of sounds (acoustic), and without rehearsal, the memory traces become fragile and are lost within about 30 seconds. • Material that is rehearsed is passed on to long term store where it can remain for a lifetime, encoding in LTM is assumed to be in terms of meaning i.e. semantic

11. Activity: Research to support MSM • There are a number of studies which support the Multi-store Model of Memory giving insight into the encoding, capacity & duration of STM & LTM and evidence of a clear difference between STM and LTM • Each pair will receive one study, and you will need to take note of the Aims, Procedures, Findings & Conclusions & Evaluative Points • But importantly, you will need to discuss and take notes how do the studies offer support for the MSM model of memory • After working in your pair you will then form new groups and share the information you have found, completing the key study summary sheet

12. Research Studies supporting the Multi-store Model: • Miller (1956) ‘the magic number 7, plus or minus 2’3 • Milner (1966) Case Study of HM & Shallice and Warrington (1970) Case Study of KF 4 • Peterson and Peterson (1959) study of the duration of STM 5 • Baddeley (1966) encoding in STM & LTM 6 • Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) – study on primacy and recency effects. 7/1 • Bahrick et al. (1975) study of the Duration of VLTM -8/2

13. Miller (1956) ‘the magic number 7 plus or minus 2’ The digit span technique This is because we are able to ‘chunk’ information to increase STM capacity

14. Miller (1956) ‘the magic number 7 plus or minus 2’

18. Key Study: Bahrick et al.(1975) The Duration of LTM

19. Glazner and Cunitz (1966) • Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) conducted an experiment that demonstrated change in the outcome of the serial position curve. Aims: to examine the primacy recency effect to see if there were two separate stores of memory (STM & LTM) Procedures: • PPs presented lists of words one at a time. They were asked to recall the words and could do so in any order (free recall) • Experimental method used - IV - two conditions – Half PPs recalled words immediately after memorising them (immediate recall) and the other half counted backwards for 30 seconds before recalling the words (recall after distraction) Findings: • They discovered that delaying recall by 30 seconds destroys the recency effect causing recall of later words to be similar to ones in the middle, however it does not influence primacy effect. Why do you think that is?

20. The graph demonstrates how delaying recall by 30 seconds with a ‘distracting’ task destroys the recency effect • Conclusions: When there are too many words for them all to be remembered, the primacy effect results in the first words being recalled and the recency effect results in the last words being recalled. • According to Glazner & Cunitz the primacy effect occurs because words remembered from the beginning of the list have already been stored in LTM, while the words at the end of the list are still in STM and so are also easily recalled. • The distracter task reduces recency effects as it interferes with STM. • The experiment offers evidence for two separate stores of memory.

21. Evaluation –Ecological Validity? Look back at your notes on the strengths and weaknesses of the experimental method to evaluate this study • Application of Primacy and Recency effects: Lawyers scheduling the appearance of witnesses for court testimony, and managers scheduling a list of speakers at a conference, take advantage of these effects when they put speakers they wish to emphasize at the very beginning or the very end of a long list.

22. Evidence from Case Studies to support the Multi-store model A crucial aspect of the Multi-store model is that there are distinct short-term and long-term stores. There is experimental evidence which suggests that LTM and STM operate differently in terms of capacity and duration. • Other evidence in support of the distinction between STM and LTM comes from case studies of people with brain damage which gives rise to memory impairment. • Milner (1966) reported on a young man, referred to as HM, who was left with severe memory impairment after brain surgery.

23. He was able to talk normally and to recall accurately events andf people from his life before surgery, and his immediate digit span was within normal limits. • He was, however, unable to retain any new information and could not lay down new memories in LTM (anterograde amnesia). • When told of the death of his favorite uncle, he reacted with considerable distress. Later, he frequently asked about his uncle and, on each occasion, reacted again with the level of grief appropriate to hearing the news for the first time.

24. KF, a motorcycle accident victim investigated by Shallice and Warrington (1970), suffered from the reverse of this memory impairment. He had no difficulty in transferring new items into LTM but had a grossly impaired digit span (retrograde amnesia). • Cases such as lend support to the Atkinson and Shiffrin model, in that they seem to point to a clear distinction between LTM and STM. • There does seem to be fairly strong support for a difference between LTM and STM in terms of duration, capacity and effects of brain damage

25. Problems and Limitations of the Model However, there are problems with the model of Atkinson and Shiffrin. • Rehearsal does not always lead to storage. • If coding in the short-term memory is mainly acoustic, how do we understand language? • Some types of information are not amenable to rehearsal, e.g. smells and yet we remember them.

26. The model is too simple and inflexible and fails to take account of factors such as the strategies people employ to remember things. • It also places emphasis on the amount of information that can be processed rather than its nature. • Some things are simply easier to remember than others, perhaps because they are more interesting, more distinctive, funnier, • The multistore model cannot account for this. • It is also criticized for focusing on the structure of the memory system at the expense of adequately explaining the processes involved.

27. Their suggestion that rote rehearsal is the only means of transfer from STM into LTM has also been criticized. • This criticism will be considered in more detail in the discussion of levels of processing by Craik & Lockhart (1972) which casts doubt on the assumption of Atkinson and Shiffrin that STM is a unitary store with a severely limited capacity – this model highlights the influence of the depth of processing on recall • Also, how does the model explain flashbulb memories? (a particularly detailed, long lasting memory of circumstances surrounding a momentous event – will be studied later in this LOA)

28. Summary of supporting Studies for Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Multi-storeModel Differences between short-term and long-term memory: • Capacity – Miller (1956) determined that people remember 7 +/- 2 chunks of information in STM • Duration – Peterson and Peterson (1959) showed memory has approximately an 18 second duration in short-term memory • Encoding – Baddeley (1966) found that short-term memory relies mainly on acoustic coding, whereas long-term memory relies mainly on semantic coding Other Supporting Research Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) – study on primacy and recency effects.

29. Working memory model – Crane 73 – 76 Examine the working memory model diagram on page 73. Using the description of the WMM select an example which explains how it works. Present the example visually Ensure that terms central executive, episodic buffer; phonological loop and visual sketchpad are used. Evaluate the model- refer specifically to the study by Pickering and Gathercole (2001) (P 75) An extension of MSM….