Phonology (2)

1. Phonology (2) Dr. AnsaHameed

2. Previously… • Phonology • Phone • Phoneme • Allophone • Minimal Pairs • Free Variation

3. Today’s Lecture • Co-articulation Effects • Supra segmental Features

4. Co-Articulation Effects • ORIGIN AND HISTORY • The term co-articulation dates from the 1930s when Menzerath and De Lacerda published a book: • Koartikulation, Stererung und Lautabgrenzung (1933). • Since the late 1960s the experimental investigation of coarticulation has developed into a major area of research. • The phenomenon of co-articulation became apparent with the detailed investigation of co-articulatory effects.

5. Co-Articulation Effects • Articulation is how speech sounds are produced, made or articulated. • Co-articulation is the way in which the movements of different articulators affect each other and the ways in which preceding and following articulations of an individual articulator affect its current articulation. • “The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation”.

6. Co-Articulation Effects • There are two well known co-articulation effects: • Assimilation • Elision

7. Co-Articulation Effects • ASSIMILATION • Assimilation is a regular and frequent sound change process by which a phoneme changes to match an adjacent phoneme in a word. A common example of assimilation is vowels being nasalized before nasal consonants as it is difficult to change the shape of the mouth sufficiently quickly. • “When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspects of one phoneme is taken or copied by another, the process is known as assimilation”.

8. Co-Articulation Effects • Types of Assimilation

9. Co-Articulation Effects • PROGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION • If the phoneme changes to match the preceding phoneme, it is progressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation is also known as left-to-right or perseveratory or preservative, lagging or lag assimilation. • “If a phoneme is affected by one that comes earlier in the utterance, this assimilation is termed as progressive”. • For example: Baking, Organ, Bacon…

10. Co-Articulation Effects • REGRESSIVE ASSIMILATION • If the phoneme changes to match the following phoneme, it is regressive assimilation, also called right to left or anticipatory assimilation. • “If a phoneme is affected by one that comes later in the sentence, this is called regressive assimilation”. • For example: I can go. Let me check! Good morning! Good boy.

11. Co-Articulation Effects • RECIPROCAL ASSIMILATION • Very occasionally two sounds (invariably adjacent) may influence one another in reciprocal assimilation. When such a change results in a single segment with some of the features of both components, it is known as coalescence or fusion. This notion was identified by SanskritGrammarians as Sandhior fusion. • “If there is a mutual influence between the two phonemes, it is reciprocal assimilation”. • For example: • What you want? • Would you? • In case you need it • Has your letter come?

12. Elision • Elision is the omission of one or more sounds such as a vowel, a consonant or a whole syllable in a word or phrase, producing a result that is easier for the speaker to pronounce. Sometimes a sound may be elided for euphonic effects. • “The term elision describes the disappearance of a sound”. Or • “The omission of a sound segment which would be present in the deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation is technically described as elision”. • The reason of elision is, in some instances, the difficulty of putting certain consonants sounds together while maintaining a regular rhythm and speed.

13. Types of Elision • WORD-INTERNAL • Weak, centralvowels are elidedwhentheyoccur in unaccentedsyllablesbetweentwoconsonants. • Examples: certain, student, vision, classical, nasal, etc. • Alveolar consonants are elided when they occur between two consonants. • For example: handsome, postpone. 

14. AT WORD BOUNDARIES • Word-final alveolars [t,d] are generallyelidedwhenthey are preceded and followedbyotherconsonants, especiallywhenthefollowingconsonantis a plosive. • Examples: nextturn,  bestjoke,  sendtwo,  rubbeddown.

15. THINK OF SOME EXAMPLES OF ASSIMILATION AND ELISION IN URDU LANGUAGE • Examples: • ‘Ghalat’ spoken as ‘ghalt’ • ‘Qadar’ spoken as ‘qadr’

16. Supra segmental Features

17. Supra segmental Features • DEFINITION 1. • ‘denoting a feature of an utterance other than the consonantal and vocalic components, for example (in English) stress and intonation’ • Retrieved From:http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/suprasegmental • ‘of or relating to significant features (as stress, pitch, or juncture) that occur simultaneously with vowels and consonants in an utterance’

18. Supra segmental Features • Linguistics . pertaining to or noting features of speech,asstress, pitch, and length that accompany individual consonants and vowels and may extend over more than one such segmentalelement;pertaining to junctural and prosodic  features . Retrieved from:http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/suprasegmental

19. Supra segmental Features: Syllable • Syllables ORIGIN.  Greek sullabē, fromsun- 'together' + lambanein 'take‘ • ‘a unit of pronunciation having one vowel sound, with or without surrounding consonants, forming the whole or a part of a word; for example, there are two syllables in water and three in inferno’. • Retrieved from:http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/syllable

20. Supra segmental Features: Syllable • A syllable is a unit of sound composed of •  a central peak of sonority (usually a vowel), and • the consonants that cluster around this central peak.

21. Supra segmental Features: Syllable • Parts of a Syllable: 1.ONSET:( Optional) Initial segment of a Syllable 2. RHYME: ( Obligatory)Core of a syllable, consisting of a nucleus and coda 3.NUCLEUS/CENTRE/PEAK: (Obligatory)Central segment of a syllable • Coda/Termination: (Optional) • Closing segment of a syllable • NOTE(A syllable thus has three positions): • Nucleus/Centre/Peak • Onset • Coda/Termination

22. Supra segmental Features: Syllable • A syllable is a unit of sound ,and, therefore we should look at the phonetic transcription of words and not their Orthographic representation.

23. Supra segmental Features: Syllable • Phonetically ,a syllable is said to consist of a centre which has little or no obstruction to the flow of air and which sounds comparatively loud • KINDS OF SYLLABLES • Open Syllables • Closed Syllables • Syllables consisting of only a vowel • Syllables where the central vowel is both preceded and followed by one or more than one consonant

24. Supra segmental Features: Syllable A Syllable is made up of two kinds of elements : • Vowels • Consonants The vowels are the obligatory elements and the consonants are the optional. A vowel can be a syllable by itself ,it may be preceded by one,two,or three consonants .Or it may be followed by one ,two, three, or four consonants.

25. Supra segmental Features: Syllable • The vowel is the central element in a Syllable and is called the Nucleus. The consonants that precede the central vowel are called the Releasing Consonants while the consonants that follow the Central vowels are called Arresting Vowels. • The structure of English syllable can thus be shown as: • (CCC) V (CCCC)

26. Supra segmental Features: Syllable • When two or more consonants occur together without a vowel between them in the same syllable, such consonants are said to form a CONSONANT CLUSTER e.g. the word (TEXTS ) has a four consonant-cluster at the end . • When two or more consonants occur together in a word but belong to different syllables (e.g the consonants /n/ and /t/ in the word (CONTEXT),they are called ABUTTING CONSONANTS

27. Supra segmental Features: Syllable SYLLABIC CONSONANT • In a Syllable, a nucleus is generally a vowel ,preceded or followed by consonants ,which are marginal elements but there are some special cases where the consonant is the nucleus of the syllable e.g.in words like Bottle cattle,kettle, cotton and mutton,the second syllable has two sounds ,both consonants either /tl/or /tn/.In such cases /t/ and /n/ occupy the nuclear position and are called SYLLABIC CONSONANTS ,represented as V.(i.e. not as C )

28. Supra segmental Features: Stress • Stress • ‘An emphasis given to a particular syllable or word in speech, typically through a combination of relatively greater loudness, higher pitch, and longer duration….. • ’ http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/stress

29. Supra segmental Features: Stress • A Syllable prronounced more prominently than the other syllables in the sme word is said to beSTRESSEDor ACCENTEDsyllable.A stressed syllable is often mentioned by a small vertical line just above and before its beginning ,as shown in ‘chapter and ad ’mire

30. Supra segmental Features: Stress • Primary stress • Secondary stressI • In English we find three kinds of syllables in term of stress : • Syllables with primary or strong stress • Syllables with secondary or weak stress • Syllables with no stress

31. Supra segmental Features: Stress • There are four features that have been identified crucial in deciding stress placement • The Phonological structure of these syllables,(i.e.the sequences of consonants and vowels making up the syllables • The grammatical category of the words(i.e.whether the word is noun,adjective or a verb) • The morphological structure of word i.e whether the word is Simple or Compound

32. Supra segmental Features: Stress • Examples of the words that are orthographically similar but differ in pronunciation ,in accordance with the Word Class to which they belong: • (The stress is placed on the second syllable of Verb, but on the second syllable of nouns and adjectives) • ABSTRACT • CONDUCT • CONTRAST • PERFECT • INSULT • PERMIT • REBEL • RECORD

33. Supra segmental Features: Intonation • Intonation • Definition: In linguistics, the use of changing vocal pitch to convey grammatical information or personal attitude. • Retrieved from:http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/intonationterm.htm

34. Supra segmental Features: Intonation • ‘the rise and fall of the voice in speaking’ • Retrieved from:http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/intonation • ‘manner of utterance; specifically: the rise and fall in pitch of the voice in speech’ • Retrieved from:http://www.merriam- webster.com/dictionary/intonation

35. Supra segmental Features: Tone • ‘the quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the degree of highness or lowness of a tone’:

36. Supra segmental Features • Speech may be divided into tone units.Each tone unit is composed of: • A tonic syllable (obligatory) • Optional elements which precede the tonic syllable (pre-head, head) • Optional elements which follow the tonic syllable (tail)

37. Complex Tones and Pitch Height • Fall: neutral statement • Rise: neutral question, • Fall-Rise: scepticism • Level: boredom, disinterest In ordinary speech intonation tends to take place within the lower part of the speaker´s pitch range. Only with strong feelings we use extra pitch height.

38. Neutral Statement: Fall

39. Rise: questioning, doubt, desire to continue conversation

40. Fall-Rise: surprise, scepticism

41. Level: boredom, lack of interest

42. Recap

43. References • Fromkin, V. & R. Rodman (1988). An Introduction to Language. New York: Holt- • Saunders, 4th edition. • Gimson, A.C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English. London: Ed. • Arnold, 3rd edition. • Jones, D. (1950). An Outline of English Phonetics. Cambridge: Heffner & Sons. • Mc Carthy, P. (1967). English Pronunciation. Cambridge: Heffer & Sons, 4th edition • Kathryn LaBouff (2007), Singing and Communicating in English. Oxford Univ. Press

44. Retrieved from::http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/suprasegmental • Retrieved from:http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/suprasegmental • Retrieved from:http://grammar.about.com/od/il/g/intonationterm.htm • Retrieved from:http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/british/intonation.