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Potential Problems. Thinking Through Some Issues. Limited liability. General rule: no personal liability Limits ONLY limits liability of owners Sometimes can reach beyond to owners’ assets (e.g. fraud )
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Potential Problems Thinking Through Some Issues
Limited liability • General rule: no personal liability • Limits • ONLY limits liability of owners • Sometimes can reach beyond to owners’ assets (e.g. fraud) • Exception: direct liability of shareholders under contract or tort law if shareholder (a) assumes liability by contract or (b) commits a tort in the conduct of corporation’s business
Exception: “Piercing the corporate veil” • Equitable remedy • “Piercing sees to happen freakishly. Like lightning it is rare, severe and unprincipled.” • Frank Easterbrook & William Fischel
Example: Dewitt Truck Brokers, Inc. v. Fleming Fruit Co., 540 F.2d 681 (4th Cir. 1976). • Fleming Fruit Company, a close corporation controlled by a single individual. • Sells fruit for growers on commission. • Defaults on shipping contract with DeWitt Truck. • Pres. of Fleming assures DeWitt he will pay if company does not.
Key factors: • Gross “undercapitalization” and “insolvency of the corporation” • Failure to observe adequate corporate formalities • Nonpayment of dividends • Control / domination by Fleming • Siphoning of corporate funds by Fleming • Nonparticipation by officers, directors, shareholders other than Fleming in affairs of corporation
Defective incorporation cases • De facto corporation - partially formed, serves as shield • Colorable compliance • Good faith • Use of corporate power (e.g. issued stock, held meetings) • Corporation by estoppel • 3rd party who dealt with entity as a corporation without expectation that shareholders will be liable is estopped • Good faith by party asserting defense
Structuring Solutions in Entities So Many Choices!
Common Structure of Entity Law • What is “corporate law” / “business organizations law”? • Businesses face a fundamentally similar set of problems which legal systems solve with a fundamentally similar set of legal rules and standards.
“Corporation” • Legal personality • Limited liability • Transferable shares • Delegated management under a board structure • Investor ownership
Why? • Purpose of these 5 characteristics is to constrain value-reducing forms of opportunism among the constituencies of the corporate enterprise. • 3 generic conflicts • Managers & shareholders • Shareholders & shareholders • Shareholders & other constituencies (employees, creditors)
Legal Personality • Ability of the firm to own assets distinct from property of other persons. • Civil law: “separate patrimony” • “Affirmative asset partitioning”: shields assets of firm from owners’ creditors • “liquidation protection”: protect going concern value of firm against individual shareholders and creditors of shareholders.
Limited Liability • Default term in firm’s contract with creditors that limit creditors’ claims. • “defensive asset partitioning” • Limited liability + legal personality reduce overall cost of capital by facilitating monitoring of assets. • Allows isolation of lines of business for obtaining credit.
Transferable shares • Permits firm to conduct business uninterruptedly as identity of owners changes. • Connected to liquidation protection: value of firm stays constant because of limited liability, legal personality, and transferable shares.
Delegated management + board • Centralization of management. • Notifies 3rd parties who have authority to bind the firm. • Formal separation of board and managers checks opportunism by managers. • Means of access to credible information for minority shareholders & other interests.
Investor ownership • Right to receive net earnings. • Investors are hardest to protect contractually; corporate law solves problem. • Investors have (are induced to have) homogenous interests.