Learning Science in Elementary School

1. INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL OF SCIENCE TEACHINGEUROPEAN SUMMER SCHOOL FOR PRIMARY SCIENCE TRAINERS ERICE, SICILY : 9 – 14 JULY 2005

2. Learning Science in Elementary School The development of scientific concepts and the influence of everyday knowledge when learning science Margarida Afonso margarida.afonso@ese.ipcb.pt Centre of Educational Research, University of Lisbon College of Education of Castelo Branco

3. Conceptual framework

4. In which way are the several aspects involved in the What and the How children should learn Science (programme, textbooks and pedagogic practice of the teachers) interlinked and combined? To what extent is it possible and advisable/desirable to raise the level of conceptualisation and development of scientific concepts in the learning of Science? Whatand How should teacher training be so that it is possible to raise the level of conceptualisation and development of scientific concepts in the learning of Science? The Problems

5. The understanding of concepts of a high level of abstraction; The understanding of the inter-relations between the different types of scientific knowledge and between them and non-scientific (common sense) knowledge; Understanding the true nature of scientific knowledge and the difference between scientific knowledge and non-scientific knowledge Theoretical Basis Several authors maintain that high levels of scientific literacy involve, amongst other aspects:

6. Learning concepts involves: ● Generalising knowledge andthe contextsin which that knowledge is applied; ● Establishing relations between the different scientific knowledge that is being broached, differentiating the essential/more relevant aspects from the less important/less relevant aspects. Scientific concepts are generalisations of some type of similarity found in different objects or events that allow us to understand the order of the physical and natural world that surrounds us. [...] Concepts of high level of abstraction are related to a wide variety of different phenomena (Harlen & Jelly, 1993). Relations between scientific knowledge that is being broached and common sense knowledge (for example: knowledge from the daily life of the students). Theoretical Basis CONCEPTS SCIENTIFIC – NON SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE RELATIONS

7. Methodology – Instruments Relation between discourses - Intra-disciplinary science relations – The Concepts… Independence/Isolation between discourses Indicators Dependence/Relation between discourses On the analysis of the study topics The subjects already dealt with are never mentioned in the study/discussion of new topics. The inter-relations between different topics are ignored The topics already dealt with are always the starting point for broaching new subjects. On the tasks or activities to be done Situations that relate the different topics are never predicted The tasks/activities always relate several topics. It is difficult to develop concepts It is easy to develop concepts

8. Methodology – Instruments Relation between discourses – Scientific/Non-Scientific knowledge Dependence/Relation between discourses Independence/Isolation between discourses Indicators On the analysis of the study topics Exclusively scientific knowledge is broached. The relationship between the two types is ignored Non-academic knowledge is constantly inter-related to academic knowledge Situations that relate academic to non-academic knowledge are not foreseen The tasks/ activities always relate the two types of knowledge On the tasks or activities to be done It is easy to develop concepts It is difficult to develop concepts

9. Global Presentation Curriculum Textbooks Pedagogical Practice Inter-relations between knowledge (Scientific/Non scientific - Common sense) Concepts (Scientific) Learning/Scientific Development of students IMPLICATIONS IN TEACHER TRAINING

10. Global Presentation – The Content Curriculum Textbooks Pedagogical Practice 2. The physical aspects of the local environment 1. The living organisms of their environment 2nd Year 4th Year 4. Make experiments with air 3. Make experiments with water

11. The curriculum

12. The curriculum 1. The living organisms of their environment 4th Year 2nd year • A Observe and identify some of the more common plants that exist in their immediate environment • recognise different environments where plants grow • know the parts that make up the more common plants (root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruit) • record the variations in the appearance, during the year, of a bush or a tree • observe and identify some of the more common animals that exist in the immediate environment • collect information about the way of life of those animals (what they eat, how they reproduce, how they move about…) • B What the weather is like (record the daily atmospheric conditions) • 1. recognise some of the • 2. relate the seasons of the year to the characteristic weather conditions • 3. recognise the existence of air (make experiments) • 4. recognise air in movement (wind, air currents …)

13. The curriculum 2. The physical aspects of the local environment 4th Year 2nd Year 1. Recognise and observe phenomena: - of condensation (clouds, fog, dew) - of solidification (snow, sleet, frost) - of precipitation (rain, snow, sleet) 2. make experiments that represent phenomena of: - evaporation - condensation - solidification - precipitation 3. understand that rain water infiltrates the soil giving origin to ground water 4. recognise springs and watercourses. 1. what the weather is like (record the daily atmospheric conditions) 2. recognise some of the weather conditions (rainy, hot, cold, windy…) 3. relate the seasons of the year to the characteristic weather conditions 4. recognise the existence of air (make experiments) 5. recognise air in movement (wind, air currents …)

14. The curriculum 3. Make experiments with water 4thYear 2nd Year ● Observe the effects of the temperature on water (ebullition, evaporation, solidification, fusion and condensation). 4. Make experiments with air 2nd Year 4thYear ● Recognise the existence of air (balloons, syringes…) ● Recognise that air has weight (use balloons and balls with air and empty) ● Experiment on the behaviour of objects in the presence of hot air and cold air (light objects over a heater, St. John balloons…). ● Trough experiments recognise the existence of oxygen in the air (combustion)

15. Learning concepts involves: ● Generalising knowledge andthe contextsin which that knowledge is applied; ● Establishing relations between the different scientific knowledge that is being broached, differentiating the essential/more relevant aspects from the less important/less relevant aspects. Scientific concepts are generalisations of some type of similarity found in different objects or events that allow us to understand the order of the physical and natural world that surrounds us. [...] Concepts of high level of abstraction are related to a wide variety of different phenomena (Harlen & Jelly, 1993). Relations between scientific knowledge that is being broached and common sense knowledge (for example: knowledge from the daily life of the students). Theoretical Basis CONCEPTS SCIENTIFIC – NON SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE RELATIONS

16. Where are the generalisations? Where are the relations among concepts of high level of abstraction? Where are the differentiation between the essential/more relevant aspects from the less important/less relevant aspects. Where are the relations between scientific knowledge and common sense knowledge? Synthesis - Curriculum CONCEPTS SCIENTIFIC – NON SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE RELATIONS

17. The Textbooks

18. The root and the stem I hold the plant to the soil. It is through me that the plant gets food. I am the ______ . carrots radish potatoes turnips beets asparagus I am the foot of the plant. It is through me that food passes. I am the ______ . Textbooks (Bambi, 2) – Living things in the environment (plants) ● I talk about the figures (parts that make up the plant– root and stem) ● I carefully pull up a small plant. I look at the root and the stem. ● I read and write yes or no. I complete the sentences with root or stem. ● I write the names of roots and stems that we use for food (coloured bars). FACTS ● Was the root outside the soil? □ ● Does the plant pulled up have a root? □ ● Do all stems have the same height? □ ● Is the stem of the pulled up plant thick? □

19. The plant breathes through us. We are the ___ . Leaves and flowers ● Are the leaves of the plants all of the same size? ● Do they all have the same shape? ● Is each leaf the same on both sides? Garden cabbage Spring cabbage lettuce cauliflower artichoke The fruit grows from me. I am the ___ . ● Do all flowers have the same colour? ● Do they all have the same shape? ● Do all flowers smell good? ● Are they all the same size? Textbooks (Bambi, 2) – Living things in the environment (plants) ● I talk about the figures (parts that make up the plant– leaves and flowers) ● I look at different leaves and flowers. ● I read and write yes or no. I complete the sentences with leaves or flower. ● I write the names of roots and stems that we use for food (coloured bars). FACTS

20. I am the _________ . I live on ______________. My body is covered with___. I have _______________. I walk________________. I was born from ________. What does it eat? How does it reproduce itself? ● Meat ● Vegetables ● Grain ● Other food ● It is born from the mother ● It is hatched How does it travel? ● by walking ● by flying ● by swimming ● by jumping ● by running I am the _________ . I live on land. My body is covered with fur. I have claws. I love fish. I walk. I was born from the mother. Textbooks (Bambi, 2) – Living things in the environment (animals) SOME CONCEPTS ● I read. I write the name of an animal with the characteristics described. ● I draw that animal. ?

21. What I am going to learn ● The figure shows some weather features that can be observed throughout the year. Which are the seasons of the year? What are the names of the months in which each season starts and ends? What temperature is shown in the thermometer for each of the seasons? Which is the hottest season? What does the child do at that time? There are two seasons in the year with milder temperatures. Which are they? Which season is more rainy and more windy? What does the tree look like in each season of the year? In winter the tree is more bent. What makes it move? In autumn the swallows leave for other countries. Why? Textbooks(Bambi, 2)- The weather that makes FACTS

22. SUN HAZE CLOUDY THUNDER WIND RAIN SNOW Textbooks(Bambi, 2) – About Weather ● I talk about the figures (different atmospheric conditions). FACTS ● I read. According to what the sentences say, I draw what the weather is like. It’s spring! There are flowers in the fields and on the trees. The birds are constantly chirping. The temperature is mild. The sky is blue and the sun shines and warms the earth. Summer has arrived. It’s hot! Warmed by the sun, the sand on the beach burns. All along the beach, coloured sunshades look like an oasis in the middle of the desert!... The weather starts to get colder. It’s autumn! The yellowed leaves fall and whirl about blown by the wind. There are clouds hiding the sun. The swallows leave for hotter countries. It’s cold. Winter is here. There is snow on the mountain. The wind blows and it doesn’t stop raining. The trees are bare. The animals take shelter in the burrows.

23. The weather changes throughout the year SPRING SUMMER AUTUMN WINTER Textbooks(Bambi, 2) – About the weather and seasons of the year ● I talk about the figures (the characteristic weather for each season of the year). ● I caption the figures with the respective sentences (coloured bars) Concepts of Seasons/Weather? ●___________________________________ ●___________________________________ ●___________________________________ ●___________________________________ ● The days are hotter in summer. There is little rain. ● In Spring, the days start to get warmer. There are more sunny days. ● It’s cold in Winter. It rains, there is wind and sometimes it snows. ● In Autumn, the weather starts to get colder. There are still many sunny days.

24. Textbooks(Bambi, 4) – About Water I observe and investigate Water is an abundant liquid in Nature. It does not always have the same appearance. The water vapour rises, cools and is transformed into little drops of water that make up the clouds. When the clouds become heavier the little drops fall as rain. The heat from the sun warms the waters of the sea, the river, the lake… Because of the heat, the water evaporates, that is, it is transformed into vapour. When the air gets very cold, the water in the clouds solidifies, becoming solid water and falls as snow or sleet. The heat of the sun melted the snow and the water became liquid again. The water fell from the clouds and returned to the earth. Part of that water infiltrated the soil. When it finds impermeable rock, it forms ground water. The water flows under the earth. When it finds a way out, it forms a spring which may sustain different courses of water - rivers, streams …

25. - That was easy! The heat expanded the lid which became larger! - How pretty! The wax cooled and became solid again! 3 4 1 2 - The wax is melting! It’s because of the heat!... - If you want the lid to come out, heat it a little. But don’t burn yourself! Textbooks (Bambi, 4)- Experiments (fusion, solidification, dilation) Concept of Changes of matter? I observe and experiment Scientific Non-Scientific relations? ● Why did the wax become liquid? ● The drops of wax that fell from the candle became solid again. Why? ● What is the girl doing? What advice did her friend give her? After being heated, the lid came out easily. Why? I read and learn When the temperature varies, some substances change state. When heated, the wax changed from solid to liquid. This change of state is called fusion. When the wax cooled, it changed from liquid to solid. This change of state is called solidification. When the jar lid was heated, it increased in volume, it dilated. The increase in volume of a body is called, dilation.

26. A F B C E D Textbooks (Bambi, 4)– Temperature effects in water I observe and experiment Some Conceptualization of Changes of matter Scientific Non-Scientific relations? ● What is the girl in figure A doing? In which state is the water in the container she is going to put in the freezer? ● What is the same girl doing in figure B? What happened to the liquid water of figure A? Why? ● In figure C, the ice has almost melted. Has the temperature increased or decreased? ● In figure D, the water is boiling. What makes the water boil? ● What do you see in figure E? What is the vapour coming from the pyrex dish made up of? ● What happened to the water vapour when it found the lid? Why?

27. Textbooks (Bambi, 4) – Experiments – about physical water changes Concept of Changes of matter? ♦ I make experiments similar to those presented ● What is the boy doing? ● What happened? ●The clothes were wet. Now they are dry. ● What happened? Scientific Non-Scientific relations? ● The extractor is off. ● Why are drops of water falling from the extractor fan? ● What is the boy doing? ● What happened to the water? ♦ I complete with the words from the coloured bar. Figure A – The water disappeared. The water evaporated. A ______________ phenomenon occurred. Figure B – The water vapour became liquid water. It found a cold surface and condensed. A ______________ phenomenon occurred. Figure C – The water changed into ice cubes. The water solidified. A ______________ phenomenon occurred. Figure D –Drops of water fall from the extractor. It seems to be raining. A lot of water vapour gathered in the extractor. The heavy drops start to fall. A _______________phenomenon occurred. evaporation condensation solidification precipitation

28. I get a balloon and a syringe. 1 3 I insert the syringe in the balloon. 2 I fill the syringe with air. I press the plunger for the air to pass from the syringe to the balloon. 4 Textbooks (Bambi, 4) – Experiments – (solid, liquid and gaseous matter) Experiments – Gaseous matters Concepts of State of matter Solid, Liquid, Gas? ♦ I indicate the correct answers. ● Does the air inside the balloon maintain the same form as inside the syringe? Yes □ No □ ● Does the air inside the balloon occupy the same space as inside the syringe? Yes □ No □ ♦ I conclude and complete. ● Gas bodies do not have the same ____ . Their form is variable. In the syringe it had the form of the ____ , in the balloon it took the form of the ____ . ● The air in the syringe occupied less space than in the ___ . ● Gas matters also do not maintain the same volume. ♦ I indicate in the table as in the example.

29. Textbooks (Bambi, 4) – Experiments with the air (the oxygen) I observe and experiment Concept of Combustion? ● I light up a candle. ● I let some drops of wax fall onto a plate. ● I place the candle on the drops of wax and leave it lit up. ● I put a glass over the candle. ● Does the candle continue to burn? ● I observe what happened to the candle. ♦ I conclude and complete. ● In figures A, B and C the candle burns, forming a flame that releases heat. A combustion is happening. ● In figure C the candle continues to burn, even inside the glass. In figure D the candle went out. ● What was inside the glass in figure C that ceased to exist inside the glass in figure D? For the candle to burn, the presence of oxygen, which is a gas that is in the air, is necessary. The candle went out because, while it burned, it used up all the ___________that was inside the glass.

30. Autumn Winter Spring Summer Textbooks (Retintim, 2) – About Plants A whole plant consists of: root, stem, leaves, flowers and fruit. The FRUIT keeps and protects the seeds that will give origin to a new plant. The FLOWERS will transform into fruit The LEAVES allow the plant to breathe The STEM supports the plant and takes the food (sap) to all its parts The ROOT fixes the plant to the soil and feeds it by absorbing water and mineral salts from the soil.

31. Fish move in water by swimming. Therefore, they have fins. The CAT eats meat. Animals that eat meat are called carnivorous. The HEN reproduces by means of eggs. All birds reproduce by means of eggs that they hatch in their nests. The great majority of BIRDS move in the air by flying. Therefore, they have wings. The CAT develops inside the womb of the mother. Many of the animals that live on the Earth are formed in the womb of the mothers. They develop there for a period of 3 months until they are born. The HORSE moves about by placing its four hooves on the ground. That is how many of the animals move about. The COW eats grass. Animals that eat grass are called herbivorous. The HEN eats grain. Animals that eat grain are called granivorous. Textbooks(Retintim, 2)– Styles of life of some animals HOW THEY MOVE ABOUT HOW THEY REPRODUCE WHAT THEY EAT

32. Summer is the season of fruits. It is very hot and people go to the beaches. The days are longer and the nights shorter. Spring is the season of flowers. The birds make their nests. The swallows return. The temperature is pleasant. The seeds that were sown start to sprout. Winter is the rainy and cold season. Nothing grows in the fields. Everything seems dead. The Sun rises late and sets early. The days are shorter and the nights longer. Sometimes it snows. Autumn is the season when it starts to get cold and the first rains fall. The leaves of many plants change colour and fall. The swallows go to other warmer lands. Textbooks(Retintim, 2) – About the weather and seasons of the year The weather changes throughout the seasons of the year

33. Textbooks (Retintim, 2) - The existence of air (experiments) There is air everywhere. But it cannot be seen. The birds fly in the air; the clouds float in the air. We breathe air. The plants breathe air. The balloons are full of air. The ball is full of air. Like that, it is hard and bounces. • Dip a glass funnel in water while at the same time covering the opening at the end of the tube with a finger. • The water will not go in the funnel because it is full of a substance that prevents the entry of water. • 2. Remove the finger leaving the opening free. • You will see bubbles of a gas bursting on the surface of the water as it enters the funnel • 3. Finally, the funnel will be full of water as soon as all the gas has left it. That gas is the air that you breathe.

34. Textbooks (Retintim, 2) – Evaluation context • Does the water enter the glass? • ________________________ • Dip, bottom up, a glass that seems empty. Keep the glass straight. (Fig. A). • Tilt the glass a little (Fig. B). • What do you see coming out of the glass? • ________________________ • What are those bubbles made up of? • ________________________

35. B A Textbooks (Retintim, 2) – Experiments with air Later… In figure A the syringe is full of air. Cover the opening of the syringe with a (figure B) and put pressure on the plunger. It will only go down a little. The air that is compressed inside the syringe (figure B) does not let the plunger go in. Inter-relations? The girl is blowing up the balloon. Therefore, it is full of air. I am going to throw a balloon. Balance the scales with the empty ball. Fill the ball with air and check if the needle tips to the left. That is because the air has weight. The balloon rises because the hot air is lighter than the cold air.

36. COLD Textbooks (Retintim, 4) – Experiments (Discovering materials and objects ) Effects of temperature on water (evaporation, ebullition, condensation, solidification, fusion) Observe and carry out the experiments suggested. Concept of Changes of matter? The heat from the flame causes the water to heat up and the formation of air bubbles. That is, the water starts to boil and vaporises quickly and noisily. The quick and noisy vaporisation of water is called ebullition. The heat of the sun causes the slow vaporisation of the water in the clothes hanging in the open air from the clotheslines. The slow and spontaneous vaporisation of water is called evaporation. When the water vapour found the cold surface of the glass, it changed from the gas state to the liquid state. The cooling caused the condensation of the water vapour. When exposed to the heat of the Sun, the ice cube melted or became liquid. We call it fusion when water changes from the solid state to the liquid state. Upon contact with the ice cubes, the water in the jar froze and solidified. The cooling caused the solidification of the water.

37. Place a piece of glass over a tub with boiling water and observe what happens. 1 - Place a cuvette with water in the freezer of a fridge. Remove it a few hours later. 2 - Textbook (Retintim, 4) – Evaluation context Facts • What happens to the water vapour when it comes in contact with the cold glass? • ___________________________ • b) What do you call this phenomenon? • ___________________________ • c) What do you understand by condensation? • __________________________ Condensation is when water vapour changes to the liquid state. a) What state has the water changed to? ___________________________ b) What phenomenon occurred here? ___________________________ c) What do you understand by freezing? ___________________________ In the fridge, the water freezes, that is, it changes from the liquid state to the solid state.

38. C B A B A C A B Textbook (Retintim, 4) – Experiments with air (existence of oxygen in the air – combustion) The air The Earth is surrounded by a gas layer called atmosphere which consists of air. Air cannot be seen, but it exists. When you breathe, you introduce air into your organism. When you run, you feel the air on your face… Observe and carry out the experiments suggested. Some Concepts Remove the finger from the funnel. What happened? The air bubbles burst on the surface of the water. As soon as the air bubbles leave the funnel, it fills up with water. Dip a glass funnel in water, as shown in the picture. The water does not enter the funnel. Conclusion: Air exists and it occupies space. Fill the ball up with air and place it again on the scales. The scales became unbalanced. Place an empty football on a scale and balance it. Conclusion: Air has weight. Light the wick of the alcohol lamp and leave it. The flame keeps burning. After some time, the flame from the lamp will go out. Cover the lamp with a bell jar. Conclusion: There is a gas in the air, called oxygen, that feeds the combustion.

39. Results - Concepts – syntheses at the end… TEXTBOOK – 2nd year “DISCOVERING THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT” In a few words: ● The weather conditions may be rainy, windy, hot, cold… ● The seasons of the year are four: spring, summer, autumn, winter. ● Each season has its own characteristics. In spring, the weather is pleasant; in summer, it is very hot; in autumn, the first rains fall; in winter it is very cold. ● We are surrounded by air, but cannot see it. Wind and air currents are air in movement. Temperature? Light? Without Wind? Without rain? Temperature Temperature Water

40. Where are the generalisations? Where are the relations among concepts of high level of abstraction? Where are the differentiation between the essential/more relevant aspects from the less important/less relevant aspects. Where are the relations between scientific knowledge and common sense knowledge? Synthesis - Texbooks CONCEPTS SCIENTIFIC – NON SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE RELATIONS

41. The Teacher

42. The teacher - Concepts Teacher /Miss Inácia Teacher/Miss Céu The students and teacher are analysing the result of the latest experiments involving the changes in the state of substances and following that they start to make their conclusion. During the dialogue, they recall the experiments they made, the results obtained, the concepts of the different changes of state are introduced, they recall the initial and final states of the substances and if changes occurred by heating or cooling. The teacher uses some of the comments made by the students to recall again the aspects already analysed “how did you explain that?”, “does the group want to explain better?”. In the end they draw up a summary-diagram and write the information in their exercise-book. There is talk about the consumption of oxygen during combustion. Gina mentions that in cars that are running there is also combustion... The students start to say “that it is essential for us to breathe”, “without oxygen there is no life”. The consumption of oxygen during combustion continues to be analysed without reference to the gaseous exchange in many living organisms involving oxygen and carbon dioxide [A subject already studied previously]. Without inter-relations between different scientific knowledge It is difficult to develop concepts With inter-relations between different scientific knowledge It is easy to develop concepts

43. The teacher – Scientific-Non-Scientific Knowledge Teacher /Miss Inácia Teacher/Miss Céu The students are studying the changes of state of water. When they discuss the results in the group, they employ expressions like “cold”, “melted”, froze”, and the teacher explains what they mean in scientific terms. In one group: - What do you want to say with “cold”, “it was cold”. What do you mean?…and “froze”? - the teacher asks. In another group: - The sealing-was bar melted - the student informs - Melted?! What is that “melted”?-the teacher asks. - It is dissolving – says the student. - It is dissolving, what is that, André?...We spoke of the phases [of matter], so which one is that? - the teacher starts to explain. The discussion continues until it is clear that when the sealing-wax bar is heated it changes to the liquid state and when it cools it changes to the solid state again. The students frequently use expressions like “melted”, “froze”, “disappeared”. The teacher does not clarify which changes of state these expressions contain. When he/she introduces the names of the changes of state, he/she starts using them without explaining the relationship with those expressions. Without inter-relations between scientific-non-scientific knowledge It is difficult to develop concepts With inter-relations between scientific-non-scientific knowledge It is easy to develop concepts

44. Some teachers: ●develop relations between scientific knowledge and common sense knowledge Synthesis - Teachers CONCEPTS Some teachers: ● make generalisations ● develop relations among concepts of high level of abstraction ● make differentiation between the essential/more relevant aspects from the less important/less relevant aspects. SCIENTIFIC – NON SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE RELATIONS

45. Global conclusions, Reflection and implications in Teacher Training

46. There is a discrepancy between what the programme defends, the textbooks suggest and the teachers implement. There is a discrepancy between what the programme, the textbooks and the teachers develop and what the educational researchers defend for scientific learning of high level. The discrepancies pointed out have implications, not always desirable, in the children’s level of scientific knowledge. Global Conclusions and Reflection

47. The difficulties in establishing relationships between the different types of knowledge may be related to three aspects : Global Conclusions and Reflection ● the general principle of our society, that “things” should be kept separate. ● the lack of scientific skills and/or pedagogical skills necessary to establish relationships between different types of knowledge. ● the very concept of inter-relation. At times, teachers thought that it was enough “to talk about certain subjects” for concepts to be developed and relationships established between academic and non-academic knowledge.

48. The learning. of not so important aspects at the expense of the understanding of relevant aspects There are low levels of scientific development. Learning is fragmented, factual, restricted instead of coherent, conceptual and broad learning. It is more difficult to change the children’s concepts; when common sense knowledge is not interpreted or explored based on scientific knowledge, it tends to remain in a more resistant form. General Implications – The Students’ Learning ● Scientific learning made by the students: Can we say that there is development of scientific literacy in the students?

49. Teacher training should correct the difficulties in the teachers’ performance so as to permit broad scientific concepts to develop if we are to implement pedagogical practices with certain characteristics. General Implications in Teacher Training