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Explore the definitions of intelligence and special education needs, theoretical perspectives, measuring intelligence, nature versus nurture debate, cultural diversity, and recommendations for educating students with special needs.
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Chapter 5 Individual Differences and Special Education Needs
Key Definitions • Individual differences • variability in abilities and characteristics among individuals in a particular group • intelligence, temperament • Students with special needs • different enough from peers to require specially adapted materials & practice
Intelligence… • Is adaptive • Is related to learning ability • Involves use of prior knowledge • Involves many different mental processes • Is culture specific
Theoretical Perspectives • Spearman • single, pervasive reasoning ability (g) • multiple specific factors • Cattell • fluid intelligence • crystallized intelligence • Cattell–Horn–Carroll • 3 strata • g • 9 or 10 specific abilities • more than 70 very specific abilities
Theoretical Perspectives • Gardner: At least 8 independent intelligences • linguistic • logical-mathematical • spatial • musical • bodily-kinesthetic • interpersonal • intrapersonal • naturalistic
Theoretical Perspectives • Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Theoretical Perspectives • Distributed intelligence • intelligent behavior depends on people’s physical and social support systems • can use objects • can represent and think about situations they encounter in a symbolic manner • can work with others to explore ideas and solve problems.
Measuring Intelligence • Intelligence tests • generalmeasure of cognitive functioning • often used in a predictive manner • IQ score • comparison of person’s performance with that of others in same age group • 100 indicates average performance
IQ and School Achievement • Children with higher IQ scores • higher course grades • higher scores on achievement tests • complete more years of education • Relation between IQ scores and achievement is not perfect • Intelligence does not necessarily cause achievement
Nature & Nurture • Intelligence has a heritable component • identical twins have more similar IQ scores than fraternal twins • Intelligence has an environmental component • affected by nutrition, drug use, richness of environment, cognitive stimulation • interventions are effective in combatting negative environmental factors • Intelligence differences may have some root in brain development and activity
Cultural and Ethnic Diversity • Differences likely environmentally caused • Differences may reflect cultural interpretations and definitions
Recommendations • Place high priority on developing, not determining, intelligence. • Think of intelligence tests as useful but imperfect measures. • Use results of focused measures to assess specific abilities. • Look for behaviors that reveal exceptional talents within cultural context. • Remember that many factors affect classroom achievement.
Styles and Dispositions • Styles: Students have little conscious control • analytic or holistic • verbal or visual • Dispositions: Students voluntarily, intentionally employ (motivation) • stimulation seeking • need for cognition • critical thinking • open-mindedness
Inclusion • Educating students with special needs in the general classroom • mandated by Federal legislation • more than 90% of students with special needs in US
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act • Public Law 94-142, IDEA • Educational rights to people with cognitive, emotional, physical disabilities; birth to age 21 • free & appropriate education • fair & nondiscriminatory evaluation • education in the least restrictive environment • individualized education program • due process
Learning Disabilities • Significant difficulties in one or more specific cognitive processes • cannot be attributed to mental retardation, emotional problems, sensory impairment, or environmental deprivation • difficulty sustaining attention • poor reading skills • ineffective learning/memory strategies • difficulty with tasks involving abstract reasoning • low motivation/poor self-concept • poor motor skills • poor social skills
Adapting Instruction • Minimize distractions. • Present new information in an explicit and well-organized manner. • Use multiple modalities to present information. • Analyze students’ errors. • Teach study skills & learning strategies. • Provide study aids.
ADHD • Inattentive, hyperactive, impulsive • Cognitive processing difficulties • Exceptional imagination, creativity • Exceptionally detailed memories of events • Low school achievement • Poor sense of self, poor social skills • Classroom behavior problems • Increased probability of substance abuse in adolescence
Adapting Instruction • Modify students’ schedules and work environments. • Teach attention-maintaining strategies. • Provide outlets for excess energy. • Help students organize and use time effectively.
Speech & Communication Disorders • Impairments in spoken language and/or comprehension that interfere with classroom performance • persistent articulation problems • abnormal syntax • difficulty understanding speech • poor reading/writing skills
Adapting Instruction • Encourage oral communication. • Listen patiently. • Ask for clarification.
General Recommendations • Start appropriate interventions early. • Take skill levels into account. • Clearly describe expectations. • Take steps to enhance self-confidence, motivation.
Emotional & Behavioral Disorders • Externalizing behaviors • aggression, defiance, lying, stealing • Internalizing behaviors • severe anxiety, depression, exaggerated mood swings, withdrawal from social interaction, eating disorders • Student characteristics • frequent absences from school • deteriorating academic performance with increasing age • low self-esteem • little, if any, empathy • significant substance abuse • lack of awareness of severity of existing problems
Adapting Instruction • Show an interest in students’ well-being and personal growth. • Give students a sense that they have some control over their circumstances. • Be alert for signs that a student may be contemplating suicide.
Autism Spectrum Disorders • Impaired social cognition, social skills, social interaction • Repetitive behaviors • Inflexible adherence to routines, rituals • Strong visual-spatial thinking skills • Unusual ability to maintain attention • Good memory for unrelated facts • Difficulty planning and organizing a future course of action • Abnormal posture and movements • Strong need for consistent, predictable environment
Adapting Instruction • Maximize consistency in the classroom layout and weekly schedule. • Use visual approaches to instruction.
General Recommendations • Insist on appropriate behavior. • Foster social cognition, effective interpersonal skills. • Be persistent; look for gradual improvement.
Students with General Delays in Cognitive and Social Functioning
Intellectual Disabilities • Significantly below-average general intelligence • Deficits in adaptive behavior • practical & social intelligence • Typical characteristics • Sociability, desire to fit in • Limited general knowledge about the world • Poor reading and language skills • Short attention span • Poor memory; few strategies • Difficulty drawing inferences, understanding abstract ideas • Difficulty generalizing to a new situation • Immature play behaviors and interpersonal skills • Delayed motor skills
Adapting Instruction • Pace instruction slowly enough to ensure success. • Provide considerable scaffolding. • Include vocational and general life skills in the curriculum.
Physical & Health Impairments • Low stamina, tendency to tire • Varying degrees of intellectual functioning • Lower levels of academic achievement, frequent school absences • Fewer opportunities to experience, interact with the outside world • Possible low self-esteem, insecurity, overdependence
Adapting Instruction • Be sensitive to specific limitations, and accommodate them flexibly. • Know what to do in emergencies. • If students and parents give permission, educate classmates about the nature of students’ disabilities.
Visual Impairments • Malfunctions of eyes or optic nerves • abnormal vision even with corrective lenses • adversely affects classroom performance • Common characteristics • normal functioning of other senses • limited vocabulary and world knowledge • delayed motor development • inability to interpret nonverbal cues • uncertainty and anxiety • less knowledge about conventions of written language (primary grades)
Adapting Instruction • Orient students ahead of time to the physical layout of the classroom. • Use visual materials with sharp contrast. • Depend heavily on other modalities. • Allow extra time for learning and performance.
Hearing Loss • Malfunction of ears or associated nerves • interferes with perception of sounds within frequency range of normal human speech • Common characteristics • delayed language development • proficiency in sign language • ability to read lips • less oral language than hearing classmates • less developed reading skills • less general world knowledge • limited social skills
Adapting Instruction • Minimize irrelevant noise. • Supplement auditory presentations with visual information and hands-on experiences. • Communicate in ways that help students hear and speechread. • Teach American Sign Language and finger spelling to other class members.
General Recommendations: Students with Physical or Sensory Challenges • Ensure that all students have access to important educational resources and opportunities. • Provide assistance only when students really need it. • Use technology to facilitate learning and performance.
Giftedness • Unusually high ability or aptitude in one or more areas • to such a degree that special educational services are necessary to help the student meet his or her full potential
Characteristics of Giftedness • Advanced vocabulary, language, reading skills • Extensive general knowledge about the world • Ability to learn quickly, easily, and independently • Efficient cognitive processes, learning strategies • Considerable flexibility • High standards for performance • High motivation for challenging tasks; boredom during easy tasks • Positive self-concept, especially academic • Above-average social & emotional adjustment
Adapting Instruction • Provide individualized tasks/assignments. • Form study groups of students with similar interests and abilities. • Teach complex cognitive skills within the context of specific subject areas. • Provide opportunities for independent study. • Seek outside resources. • Understand that students with exceptional cognitive abilities aren’t necessarily advanced in other aspects of their development.
