Biodiversity and Evolution

1. Biodiversity and Evolution Chapter 4

2. The American Alligator

3. Core Case Study: Why Should We Care about the American Alligator? Largest reptile in North America 1930s: Hunters and poachers (sport, bellies, meat) 90% killed off Importance of gator holes, nesting mounds, pathways Water resource, nesting sites for others, gar 1967: endangered species 1977: comeback, threatened species

4. 4-1 What Is Biodiversity and Why Is It Important? Concept 4-1 The biodiversity found in genes, species, ecosystems, and ecosystem processes is vital to sustaining life on earth.

5. Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the Earth�s Natural Capital Vital renewable resource food, wood fibers, energy, medicine Waste and pest control

6. Natural Capital: Major Components of the Earth�s Biodiversity

7. Different types of diversity Species diversity Ecosystem diversity Functional diversity: variety in the processes and energy flow in an ecosystem: extra uses of nests, paths of gators Genetic Diversity Variety in traits

8. 4-2 Where Do Species Come From? Concept 4-2A The scientific theory of evolution explains how life on earth changes over time through changes in the genes of populations. Concept 4-2B Populations evolve when genes mutate and give some individuals genetic traits that enhance their abilities to survive and to produce offspring with these traits (natural selection).

9. Biological Evolution by Natural Selection Explains How Life Changes over Time Biological evolution Natural selection Constant struggle for food, resources to survive Some individuals have advantage over others Those with tend to have more successful offspring Charles Darwin (gathered evidence AND published) Alfred Russel Wallace Tree of Life

10. Six Major Kingdoms of Species as a Result of Natural Selection

11. Figure 4.3 Overview of the evolution of life on the earth into six major kingdoms of species as a result of natural selection. For more details, see p. S46 in Supplement 7.Figure 4.3 Overview of the evolution of life on the earth into six major kingdoms of species as a result of natural selection. For more details, see p. S46 in Supplement 7.

12. Animation: Evolutionary tree of life

13. Animation: Evolutionary tree diagrams

14. The Fossil Record Tells Much of the Story of Evolution Fossils Physical evidence of ancient organisms Bones, casts, tracks� Some reveal what their internal structures looked like, some their actions Fossil record is incomplete: why?

15. Fossilized Skeleton of an Herbivore that Lived during the Cenozoic Era

16. Video: Dinosaur discovery

17. The Genetic Makeup of a Population Can Change Populations evolve by becoming genetically different Genetic variations First step in biological evolution Occurs through mutations in reproductive cells Mutations in other cells can happen , but only reproductive cell mutations are passed on Sometimes a mutation can result in a new genetic trait that gives it a better chance to survive �Waterworld� with Kevin Costner

18. Animation: Adaptive trait

19. Individuals in Populations with Beneficial Genetic Traits Can Leave More Offspring Natural selection: acts on individuals Second step in biological evolution Adaptation may lead to differential reproduction Genetic resistance When environmental conditions change, populations Adapt Migrate Become extinct

20. Evolution by Natural Selection

21. Figure 4.5 Evolution by natural selection. (a) A population of bacteria is exposed to an antibiotic, which (b) kills all but those possessing a trait that makes them resistant to the drug. (c) The resistant bacteria multiply and eventually (d) replace the nonresistant bacteria.Figure 4.5 Evolution by natural selection. (a) A population of bacteria is exposed to an antibiotic, which (b) kills all but those possessing a trait that makes them resistant to the drug. (c) The resistant bacteria multiply and eventually (d) replace the nonresistant bacteria.

22. Figure 4.5 Evolution by natural selection. (a) A population of bacteria is exposed to an antibiotic, which (b) kills all but those possessing a trait that makes them resistant to the drug. (c) The resistant bacteria multiply and eventually (d) replace the nonresistant bacteria.Figure 4.5 Evolution by natural selection. (a) A population of bacteria is exposed to an antibiotic, which (b) kills all but those possessing a trait that makes them resistant to the drug. (c) The resistant bacteria multiply and eventually (d) replace the nonresistant bacteria.

23. Animation: Modeling genetic drift

24. Humans and Natural Selection Is it still going on? Evidence Traits that might lead to differential production Do the number of offspring matter for human adaptation?

25. Case Study: How Did Humans Become Such a Powerful Species? Three human adaptations Strong opposable thumbs Walk upright Complex brain

26. Adaptation through Natural Selection Has Limits Genetic change must precede change in the environmental conditions Reproductive capacity How many How fast

27. Three Common Myths about Evolution through Natural Selection �Survival of the fittest� is not �survival of the strongest� Organisms do not develop traits out of need or want No grand plan of nature for perfect adaptation

28. There is a grandeur to this view of life�While this planet has gone cycling on� Endless forms most beautiful and wonderful have been and are beingevolved Charles Darwin

29. Evolution Timeline Project/Lab

30. Meeting with an evolutionary biologist

31. Video: Creation vs. evolution

32. Animation: Disruptive selection

33. Animation: Change in moth population

34. Animation: Stabilizing selection

35. 4-3 How Do Geological Processes and Climate Change Affect Evolution? Concept 4-3 Tectonic plate movements, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and climate change have shifted wildlife habitats, wiped out large numbers of species, and created opportunities for the evolution of new species.

36. Geologic Processes Affect Natural Selection Tectonic plates affect evolution and the location of life on earth Location of continents and oceans Species physically move, or adapt, or form new species through natural selection Tectonic actions: Earthquakes, Volcanic eruptions can have profound effects on natural selection Pollution Change in ecosystem

37. Figure 4.6 Over millions of years, the earth�s continents have moved very slowly on several gigantic tectonic plates. This process plays a role in the extinction of species, as land areas split apart, and also in the rise of new species when isolated land areas combine. Rock and fossil evidence indicates that 200�250 million years ago, all of the earth�s present-day continents were locked together in a supercontinent called Pangaea (top left). About 180 million years ago, Pangaea began splitting apart as the earth�s tectonic plates separated, eventually resulting in today�s locations of the continents (bottom right). Question: How might an area of land splitting apart cause the extinction of a species?Figure 4.6 Over millions of years, the earth�s continents have moved very slowly on several gigantic tectonic plates. This process plays a role in the extinction of species, as land areas split apart, and also in the rise of new species when isolated land areas combine. Rock and fossil evidence indicates that 200�250 million years ago, all of the earth�s present-day continents were locked together in a supercontinent called Pangaea (top left). About 180 million years ago, Pangaea began splitting apart as the earth�s tectonic plates separated, eventually resulting in today�s locations of the continents (bottom right). Question: How might an area of land splitting apart cause the extinction of a species?

38. Animation: Continental drift

39. Climate Change and Catastrophes Affect Natural Selection Ice ages followed by warming temperatures Collisions between the earth and large asteroids New species Extinction

40. Changes in Ice Coverage in the Northern Hemisphere During the last 18,000 Years

41. Science Focus: Earth Is Just Right for Life to Thrive Certain temperature range Dependence on water Rotation on its axis Revolution around the sun Enough gravitational mass

42. Animation: Stanley Miller's experiment

43. 4-4 How Do Speciation, Extinction, and Human Activities Affect Biodiversity? Concept 4-4A As environmental conditions change, the balance between formation of new species and extinction of existing species determines the earth�s biodiversity. Concept 4-4B Human activities can decrease biodiversity by causing the premature extinction of species and by destroying or degrading habitats needed for the development of new species.

44. Speciation Two species arise from one Environments change for 2 groups of same species Change progresses to point where breeding produces sterile offspring

45. Animation: Speciation on an archipelago

46. Geographic Isolation Can Lead to Reproductive Isolation

47. Extinction is Forever Extinction Background 1:5,000,000 Mass >25% 3-5 events in history with mass extinction and low speciation Endemic species Specialized Found in only one location Particularly vulnerable

48. Video: Frogs galore

49. Golden Toad of Costa Rica, Extinct

50. Science Focus: Humans Have Two Ways to Change the Genetic Traits of Populations Artificial selection Genetic engineering, gene splicing Consider Ethics Morals Privacy issues Harmful effects

51. Genetically Engineered Mice

52. Animation: Transferring genes into plants

53. Video: Cloned pooch

54. 4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why Is It Important? Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a major component of biodiversity and tends to increase the sustainability of ecosystems.

55. Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of Species in a Particular Place Species diversity Species richness Species evenness Diversity varies with geographical location Most species-rich communities Tropical rain forests Coral reefs Ocean bottom zone Large tropical lakes

56. Variations in Species Richness and Species Evenness

57. Science Focus: Species Richness on Islands Species equilibrium model, theory of island biogeography Rate of new species immigrating should balance with the rate of species extinction Island size and distance from the mainland need to be considered

58. Species-Rich Ecosystems Tend to Be Productive and Sustainable Species richness seems to increase productivity and stability or sustainability How much species richness is needed is debatable

59. 4-6 What Roles Do Species Play in Ecosystems? Concept 4-6A Each species plays a specific ecological role called its niche. Concept 4-6B Any given species may play one or more of five important roles�native, nonnative, indicator, keystone, or foundation roles�in a particular ecosystem.

60. Each Species Plays a Unique Role in Its Ecosystem Ecological niche, niche Pattern of living Generalist species Broad niche Specialist species Narrow niche

61. Specialist Species and Generalist Species Niches

62. Case Study: Cockroaches: Nature�s Ultimate Survivors Cockroaches Generalists High reproductive rates Giant panda and tiger salamanders Specialists Low reproductive rates

63. Figure 4.13 Specialized feeding niches of various bird species in a coastal wetland. This specialization reduces competition and allows sharing of limited resources.Figure 4.13 Specialized feeding niches of various bird species in a coastal wetland. This specialization reduces competition and allows sharing of limited resources.

64. Niches Can Be Occupied by Native and Nonnative Species Native species Nonnative species; invasive, alien, or exotic species May spread rapidly Not all are villains (farm animals) All disturb the existing ecosystem

65. Indicator Species Serve as Biological Smoke Alarms Indicator species Can monitor environmental quality Trout Birds Butterflies Frogs

66. Case Study: Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? (1) Habitat loss and fragmentation Prolonged drought Pollution Increase in UV radiation Parasites Viral and fungal diseases Climate change Overhunting Nonnative predators and competitors

67. Case Study: Why Are Amphibians Vanishing? (2) Importance of amphibians Sensitive biological indicators of environmental changes Adult amphibians Important ecological roles in biological communities Genetic storehouse of pharmaceutical products waiting to be discovered

68. Figure 4.14 Life cycle of a frog. Populations of various frog species can decline because of the effects of harmful factors at different points in their life cycle. Such factors include habitat loss, drought, pollution, increased ultraviolet radiation, parasitism, disease, overhunting by humans, and nonnative predators and competitors.Figure 4.14 Life cycle of a frog. Populations of various frog species can decline because of the effects of harmful factors at different points in their life cycle. Such factors include habitat loss, drought, pollution, increased ultraviolet radiation, parasitism, disease, overhunting by humans, and nonnative predators and competitors.

69. Keystone, Foundation Species Determine Structure, Function of Their Ecosystems Keystone species Pollinators Top predator Foundation species Create or enhance their habitats, which benefit others Elephants Beavers

70. Case Study: Why Should We Protect Sharks? Keystone species Eat dead and dying fish in the ocean Control other populations Strong immune systems Wounds do not get infected Almost never get cancer Could help humans if we understood their immune system

71. UN Project Questions Are there regions of your country with large amounts of biodiversity? What climate conditions/Geologic features have influence natural selection in the major biomes of your country Indicate some unique indicator, keystone, foundation, invasive and specialist species that live within the borders of your country Does the people in your country get most of their food from within ?