Exchange & Resource Theories

1. Exchange & Resource Theories Sabatelli, R. M., & Shehan, C. L. (1993). Exchange and resource theories. In P. G. Boss, W. J. Doherty, R. LaRossa, W. R. Schumm, & S. K. Steinmetz (Eds.), Sourcebook of family theories and methods: A contextual approach (pp. 385-411). New York: Plenum Press.

2. Metatheoretical Issue: Collectivism Versus Individualism • Collectivism (a/k/a structuralism): the social system influences the behavior of individuals in interaction. This emphasizes the influence of social norms on individual behavior. • Individualism: social structures develop based on behaviors of individuals to meet their own needs. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

3. Core Assumptions • Humans seek rewards and avoid punishment. • Based on their expectations, humans seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs. • Humans calculate rewards, costs, and consider alternatives before they act. • The standards that are used to evaluate rewards and costs vary between individuals and may change over time. • The importance attached to the behavior of others in relationships vary between individuals and may change over time. • If a reward exceeds it’s anticipated value, it’s future value will diminish. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

4. Assumptions About the Nature of Relationships: • Social exchanges are interdependent: the ability to obtain profits is based on the ability to reciprocate by providing rewards. • Experience in relationship influences subsequent exchanges. • Social exchanges are regulated by norms of reciprocity. • Social exchanges are regulated by norms of fairness. • Levels of attraction and dependence influence • relationship dynamics, • stability of relationships over time. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

5. Limitations • Not all social behavior is based on rational decision-making, a critique that has also been directed toward behaviorism. • Tautology: it is difficult to make an operational distinction between • what people value, • what people perceive as rewarding, • and how they behave. • Radical-feminist critique: • Underlying assumptions value separation of people rather than connection. This is problematic for explaining the behavior which values connectedness. • Exchange theory fails to explain or at least undervalues altruistic behavior. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

6. Major Contemporary Concepts • Overview of Concepts: • Concepts are defined and interrelationships are outlined and modeled graphically. • Concepts are classified into four general categories: • Individual characteristics (e.g., resources, expectations, perception of alternatives). • Norms and rules that regulate relationships (e.g., norms of reciprocity and equity). • Characteristics of the exchange which emerge as a result of interactional experiences that influence the decision to remain or depart. • Relationship dynamics (e.g., decision making, power, control). Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

7. Rewards, Costs, and Resources • Rewards: sources of positive reinforcement including pleasures, satisfactions, gratifications. They occur on a continuum from concrete to symbolic. Blau (1964) suggested six types of social rewards: • personal attraction, • social acceptance, • social approval, • instrumental services, • respect/prestige, • compliance/power. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

8. Rewards, Costs, and Resources (cont.) • Costs: punishments or lost rewards. Blau suggested three types: • Investment: time and effort devoted to developing skills which will be used to reward others. • Direct costs: resource given to another in exchange for something else. • Opportunity: loss of rewards which would have been available elsewhere. • Resources: anything that can be transmitted through interpersonal behavior, including commodities, material, or symbolic matter. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

9. Satisfaction with Exchange Relationships • See Figure 16-1 for graphic representation of factors mediating relationship satisfaction. • Comparison level (CL): a personal subjective standard used to evaluate a relationship which is based on previous experience and expectations. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

10. Relationship Stability • See Figure 16-2 for graphic representation of factors which influence relationship stability. • Comparison level for alternatives (Clalt): • Construct developed to explain a person’s decision to remain or terminate a relationship. • Defined as the lowest level outcome a person will accept from a relationship in light of available alternatives. • Determined by the comparison of the current relationship to the perceived best available alternative. • It is a subjective assessment. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

11. Relationship Stability (cont.) • Dependence: degree of perceived reliance on the relationship. • Barriers: discourage terminating a relationship by fostering dependence even if attraction is negative. There are two: • Internal: feelings of obligation or indebtedness which increase the psychological cost of the relationship. • External: group membership, community pressure, legal pressure, and economic concerns which increase the social and/or economic cost of terminating the relationship. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

12. Typology of Marital Quality and Stability • See Figure. • Four possible combinations of marital quality and stability. • Assumption: location in a quadrant is dependent on the balance between rewards and costs so relationships may change over time. • Family violence: research on women as victims has revealed that those who are more likely to leave are • more likely to be employed, • view themselves as having personal resources, • have shorter duration marriages, • less invested in their relationship. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

13. Norms Regulating Exchange Relationships • See Figure 16-3 which integrate norms with trust and commitment. • Normative orientation (e.g., gender roles): internalized and modified by experience. • Distributive justice: perceived fairness which is based on ratio of costs/benefits to expectations. Degree of allowable deviation is influenced by social norms. • Reciprocity: level of responsiveness between exchanges. Motivation is influenced by feelings of indebtedness. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

14. Trust and Commitment • See Figure 16-3 which integrates trust and commitment with norms. • Trust: belief that partner will not exploit. Norms of reciprocity and fairness influence feelings of trust. • Commitment: willingness to participate in a relationship over a long period of time. It builds stability by increasing dependence. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson

15. Exchange Dynamics • See Figure 16-4 • Power: ability to control another; this is distinguished from authority, the ability to legitimately extract compliance. • Assumption: dependence and power are inversely related. • Assumption: resources and power are positively and linearly related. • Exchange relationships are characterized by attempts to balance dependence and power. Dr. Ronald J. Werner-Wilson