Cultural Transformations: Religion & Science 1450-1750

1. Cultural Transformations:Religion & Science1450-1750 Ways of the World Chapter 15

2. Cultural Trends • The Early Modern Era gave birth to two intersecting cultural trends: • Spread of Christianity to Asians, Africans, & Native Americans • Emergence of a modern scientific outlook that sharply challenged Christianity • These trends connected distant peoples • Christianity became a worldwide religion • Firmly est. in the Americas & Philippines • Modestly est. in Siberia, China, Japan, India • Not at all est. in the Islamic world • Science became a new and competing worldview

3. Cultural Trends • Though Europeans were the crucial player in these two trends, they were not acting alone: • Asians, Africans, & Native Americans determined the success of Christianity in new cultural environments • Science emerged in a worldwide context • Cultural interactions were a two way street

4. Globalization of Christianity • At the beginning of the Early Modern Era Christianity was mainly limited to Europe • Christianity was seriously divided: • Roman Catholics in Western & Central Europe • Eastern Orthodox in Eastern Europe & Russia • Christianity was on the defensive against the spread of Islam: • Muslims controlled the Holy Land by 1300 • Ottoman Empire seized Constantinople in 1453

5. Protestant Reformation • Began in 1517 when German priest Martin Luther issued his 95 Theses • Led to debate about abuses within the Roman Catholic Church • Luxurious life of the pope • Corruption & immorality of some of the clergy • Selling indulgences

6. “Nailed IT”--- Meme from MrsOleson

7. Protestant Reformation • Revolutionary for challenging the authority of the Roman Catholic Church & for Luther’s differing view on how to achieve salvation • Luther believed in salvation by faith alone • Neither good works nor sacraments effect eternal destiny • The source of belief & religious authority was the Bible itself interpreted by the individual

8. Protestant Reformation • Luther’s ideas led to a massive schism in the world of Catholicism: • Some kings & princes find this is justification for independence from the Church; also to gain land & tax money previously held by the church • Middle-class urban dwellers found social legitimacy in the Reformation’s idea of equal merit of all vocations • Lower class saw the Reformation’s challenge to authority as their opportunity to express their opposition to the established social structure

9. The Reformation and Women • A large number of women were drawn to Protestantism, but did not have a greater role in the church compared to Catholicism: • End to the veneration of Mary & female saints • Closed convents • Protestant stress on the importance of reading the Bible for yourself stimulated education & literacy for women • Protestantism also emphasized the role of women as wives & mothers • Women had little opportunity to use their newfound literacy & skills outside of the home

10. Protestant Reformation • Spread quickly within & beyond Germany largely due to the printing press • Continued to split into distinctive sects as it spread through France, Switzerland, & England • None had allegiance to the pope

11. Protestant Reformation • Divided societies + fractured political systems + religious differences = violence! • 1562-1598: France was torn apart by violence b/t Catholics & Protestant Huguenots • Edict of Nantes: guaranteed religious toleration for French Protestants • 1618-1648: 30 Years’ War engulfed most of Europe & was massively destructive to property & populations • Peace of Westphalia: ended the conflict, redrew some state boundaries, each European state was sovereign & had the authority to control religious affairs in its territory

12. Counter Reformation • 1545-1563: Council of Trent • Catholic Church reaffirmed its unique doctrines & practices • Authority of the pope • Priestly celibacy • Monastic life • Veneration of saints & relics • Importance of good works • Corrected abuses & corruption • Cracked down on dissidents • Renewed focus on individual spirituality & piety • Creation of new religious orders like the Jesuits • A brotherhood of priests committed to the renewal & extension of the church & its beliefs

13. Protestant Reformation • Though the Reformation was religious in nature, it encouraged a skeptical attitude towards authority & tradition throughout Europe. • Skepticism & independent thought led to questioning all conventional religion & opened space for new directions in European intellectual life • Scientific Revolution & Enlightenment

14. Christianity: Outward Bound • Christianity both motivated & benefited from European political & economic expansion • Globalization of Christianity was supported by the creation of empires • Settlers & traders brought their faith with them • Attempted to replicate it in their new homes

15. Spread of Christianity Protestants in North America Catholics Mainly responsible for spreading the Christian message beyond Europe through organized monastic orders, trade, & conquest: Dominicans, Franciscans, Jesuits & Portuguese in Asia & Africa Spanish & French in the Americas Eastern Orthodox in Siberia & the Russian Empire • Emphasis was on education, moral purity, & civic responsibility • No tolerance for competing faiths • Little interest in converting natives – just pushing them off of their ancestral homelands

16. Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America • Europeans saw their military & economic success in the Americas as a demonstration of the power & superiority of their God • Native Americans mostly agreed • Conquering people like the Aztecs & Incas had always imposed their gods on defeated peoples, so this imposition of Christianity was not a new practice • Millions accepted baptism • Europeans claimed to have exclusive religious truth & sought to destroy local gods, shrines, temples, etc.

17. Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America • High cost of conversion for native women: • Women who were previously shamans, priests, or other religious figures in their native religion had no role in the Catholic Church • Convent life was reserved for Spanish women in the Americas

18. Conversion& Adaptation in Spanish America • Some resistance to Christianity was seen, but was quickly crushed by the colonial powers • More common were efforts to blend native traditions with Christian beliefs • Through these efforts, distinct forms Andean & Mexican Christianity emerged • Interpretation of Christian beliefs within the framework & patterns of local culture • Not a copy of Spanish Christianity

19. Christianity in China • China encountered Christianity during the powerful Ming and Qing Dynasties • Unlike the Americas, China’s political independence & cultural integrity were never threatened by European missionaries & traders • Missionaries in China needed permission to be there & sought to convert the elites, not the masses

20. Christianity in China • Initially emphasized exchanging ideas & learning from Chinese culture • Learning Chinese • Thoroughly digesting Confucian works • Dressing like the Chinese • Carried the secular knowledge of Europe with them to an audience of curious Chinese scholars • Science • Technology • Geography • Mapmaking

21. Christianity in China • A modest number of Chinese scholars converted to Christianity • Attracted by the lives of the missionaries & an interest in Western knowledge • Missionaries initially found favor in the Emperor’s court • Knowledge & skills considered useful

22. Christianity in China • Missionaries had limited success overall • 200k-300k converts from 1550-1800 from a population of roughly 300 million • .06% - 0.1% of the population • Christianity offered little the Chinese needed • “all or nothing faith” meant converts would have to abandon many aspects of traditional Chinese culture

23. Issues with Christianity in China • Missionaries lost favor with the emperor when the pope claimed authority over Chinese Christians • Forbade ancestor worship & sacrifices to Confucius • These declarations were a challenge to the emperor’s authority over his own people & an insult to Chinese culture

24. Further Issues with Christianity in China • Missionaries were willing to work with the Qing • Viewed by scholars & the elite as uncivilized figures whose rule over China was illegitimate • “miracle worker” reputation damaged their scholarly/scientific credibility • Communion = cannibalism • Miracles & supernatural beliefs were fit only for the uneducated masses • Maybe they were spies & revolutionaries

25. A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science • Scientific Revolution was a vast intellectual & cultural transformation in Europe from the mid16th – early 18th cent • No longer reliant on the Bible, the church, ancient philosophers, or the wisdom of cultural traditions for knowledge about the natural world • Knowledge acquired through careful observation, controlled experiments, & the formulation of general laws expressed in mathematical terms

26. A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science • Europe’s rebirth & development as a fragmented society gave rise to unique conditions favorable to science • Legal systems guaranteed some independence for a variety of institutions • Autonomy of universities gave scholars the freedom to pursue their studies w/o interference from the church or state • Most major figures of the Sci. Revolution had been trained in & affiliated with these universities

27. A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science • Western Europe was in a in unique position to draw on knowledge of other cultures • Islamic World • Medicine • Mathematics • Astronomy • Translation of ancient Greek classic works • 16th century Globalization • Massive exchange of information through a new awareness of the wider world • Land, people, animals, plants, etc.

28. A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science • Skepticism about established views rooted in the Reformation contributed too • Challenges to authority • Encouragement of mass literacy • Value of secular professions

29. A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science • Prior to the Sci. Revolution, the European worldview was derived mainly from Aristotle & Ptolemy • Sci. Revolution fundamentally challenged this view of the universe • Initial breakthrough came from Nicolaus Copernicus in 1543 • Heliocentric universe

30. A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science • Culmination of the Sci. Revolution came from Sir Isaac Newton • Laws of motion & mechanics • Radical view that the heavens & earth obeyed natural laws • Universe functions according to scientific principles that can be defined mathematically • Knowledge is obtained through human reason • Observation • Deduction • Experimentation

31. A New Way of Thinking:The Birth of Modern Science • Mostly male scientists – women excluded from universities • A few aristocratic women were able to contribute through their male relatives • Catholic Church strongly opposed to developments of the Sci. Revolution • Opposed their teachings • Seen as another attack on their authority • None of the early scientists rejected Christianity • Galileo proclaimed their compatibility • Newton was a serious Biblical scholar who saw no contradiction b/t science & Christianity

32. Science & Enlightenment • Sci. Revolution spread to a wider European audience in the 1700s • Printing techniques/printing press • Popular press (newspapers, magazines) • Growing literacy • Scientific societies

33. Science & Enlightenment • Guiding principles of the Sci. Revolution led to the Enlightenment • Knowledge is rooted in human reason, is skeptical of authority, & is expressed in natural laws • These principles could be applied to human affairs • “Enlightenment” was to discover ways in which humans could govern themselves more effectively • Philosophers of the Enlightenment shared a belief in the power of knowledge to transform societies

34. Science & Enlightenment • Enlightenment philosophy aimed at: • Divine right of kings • Aristocratic privilege • Superstition, ignorance, corruption of established religion • John Locke • Natural rights • Principles of constitutional government • Voltaire • Religious tolerance

35. Women & Enlightenment

36. In what ways did the Protestant Reformation transform European society, culture, and politics? • How was European imperial expansion related to the spread of Christianity?