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1. Principles Student Powerpoint – Hydrogen Technologies Content created by <Partner logo> Last updated 18th October 2019

2. Whatis a fuelcell? A fuel cell is an energy conversion device It converts the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity. Photo by Utahraptorostrommaysi / CC BY Photo By LPS.1 - Own work, CC0

3. What is a fuel cell? What does directly mean? Directly means that instead of burning the fuel and using the heat in a classic engine the electricity is generated straight away! The efficiency of the process is higher, a great part of the chemical energy possessed by the fuel is turned into electricity (up to ~70%). Photo by Utahraptorostrommaysi / CC BY Photo By LPS.1 - Own work, CC0

4. What is a fuel cell? Fuel cells have common features with traditional thermal engines and batteries Like internal combustion engines, fuel cells needs a continuous fuel stream The workingprinciple of a fuelcellis based on a redox reaction, exactly like a battery

5. What is a fuel cell? They are also different from engines end batteries: Batteries have a limited amount of energy stored inside them and the recharge time is slow, fuel cells are only limited by the size of the fuel tank. With a continuous fuel stream they can produce energy continuously Internal combustion engines burn the fuel and use the heat in a thermodynamiccycle. Their efficiency is lower.

6. Fuel cell components A Fuel Cell is made of two porous electrodes sandwiched around the electrolyte Photoby Sakurambo / CC BY

7. Fuel cell components A Fuel Cell is made of two porous electrodes sandwiched around the electrolyte Electrolyte • a physical barrier to avoid direct mixing of fuel gas and oxidant (cross-over) • allows transport of ionic charge between the two electrodes, closing the electric circuit.

8. Fuel cell components A Fuel Cell is made of two porous electrodes sandwiched around the electrolyte Electrodes - Porous material, provide the diffusion of active species - The active surface where redox reactions occurs - Allow conduction of ions and electrons produced in the redox reactions

9. Fuel cell components A Fuel Cell is made of two porous electrodes sandwiched around the electrolyte Electrodes Anode is also called the “Fuel Electrode” and assumed to have a negative polarity. Cathode is also called the “Air Electrode” and it is designed as the positive electrode.

10. Fuel cell operation Fuel is continuously fed on the anode side of the cell.

11. Fuel cell operation Air or oxygen are continuously fed on the cathode side of the cell

12. Fuelcelloperation O2- / H+ Ions flow through the electrolyte

13. Fuel cell operation Electrons flow through the external circuit, powering devices.

14. Fuel cell stack A single fuel cell produces a small voltage (~1V). In order to obtain a voltage suitable for practical applications the single cells are connected in series to form a stack. A fuel cell stack is composed of several elements that create the correct working conditions for the cell and allow an efficient collection of the energy produced.

15. Fuel cell stack: interconnect The interconnect is an electrically conductive element, usually a metal plate, that provides mechanical support to the cell and is machined to obtain the volumes where anodic and cathodic gases can flow. Each gas chamber needs to be isolated from the others. Sealing material is added to avoid gas crossover.

16. Fuel cell stack: interconnect Interconnect requirements: • High electrical conductivity • Chemical compatibility with the cell materials and the fuel/oxidant employed • Stable at high temperatures (structurally and chemically)

17. Fuel cell stack: sealing • To avoid leakage of the gas introduced in the stack and crossover of fuel and air from one gas manifold to the other, a sealant is added in various positions of each layer of the stack. • The materials employed for the seal are essentially of 3 kinds: • Mineral (mica based) • Glass-ceramic • Metal braze

18. Fuel cell stack: sealing • Sealing material characteristics: • Chemical and mechanical stability in the fuel cell working environment • Electric insulator • (strong dielectric) • Porous-free • Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) compatible with the joined materials

19. Fuel cell stack: current collector The electric current generated by the cell must be collected and transferred to the bipolar plate by creating an electric connection on several points of the cell surface. The current collector fulfills this task and its geometry is optimized to continually harvest the electron flow generated by the cell and allow an unconstrained gas supply to the electrodes.

20. Fuel cell stack: current collector • Current collector characteristics: • Chemical and mechanical stability in the fuel cell working environment • Excellent electric conductor • Porous/mesh structure to allow gas flow to the cell • Geometry that guarantees a uniform gas distribution on the surface of the cell

21. High temperature fuel cells SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cells MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells Both technologies operate at high temperature (600-900°C) and this allows the use of several fuels other than pure H2. The high operative temperature offers the possibility of using the excess heat produced for industrial or domestic purposes (cogeneration) or to produce further electrical energy employing a classic thermodynamic cycle. The materials employed in SOFCs and MCFC and the electrochemical reactions taking place inside them are different.

22. High T fuel cells: fuels Why do high temperature fuel cells allow the use of alternative fuels other than H2? Reforming Reforming is a class of thermochemical reactions where a fuel is converted to another, usually a mixture of fuel gases called syngas (synthetic gas). Reforming of light hydrocarbons (methane, methanol, ethanol etc.) and other H2-carrying molecules (such as NH3) is favoured at high temperature and with common materials as catalysts (Fe, Ni, Cu). The product of those reactions is a syngas rich in H2 and CO which is an ideal gas mixture to feed SOFC and MCFC cells. Here, as an example, is the equation for the reforming of methane with water steam: Steam methane reforming

23. High T fuel cells: advantages • High efficiency in converting chemical to electrical energy (up to ~70%). • Possibility to use a wide range of fuels. • Very low emissions: no NOx, sulphur compounds, soot or cyclic hydrocarbons; CO2 emissions are lower than conventional systems due to higher efficiency and absent in the case of pure H2 used as fuel. • The excess heat produced by the system can be used for heating purposes. • No moving parts, avoiding noise emissions. • High efficiency independent from system size: ideal candidates for distributed power generation and creation of micro grids.

24. High T fuel cells: drawbacks • High market cost: due to the fact that it’s a new technology, the prices will decrease once mass production is reached. • Endurance of the systems must be improved: it’s necessary to reach a sufficient amount of working hours while keeping the degradation of system performances under an acceptable level. • System stability in the case of carbon containing fuels must be improved.

25. MCFC Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

26. Molten carbonate fuel cells Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:

27. Molten carbonate fuel cells Electrolyte • The electrolyte is usually a combination of alkali carbonates(Na and K), which is retained in a ceramic matrix of LiAlO2 • The fuel celloperates from 600°C to 700°C, where the alkali carbonates form a highly conductive molten salt, with carbonate ions providing ionic conduction • The ions flowingthrough the electrolyte are CO32-, thus a CO2 flow is required at the cathode

28. Molten carbonate fuel cells Anode • Due to high working temperatures noble catalysts are not required • The electrode is composed of porous metal Nickel • The flow of CO32- ions towards the anode leads to the generation of water and CO2 in the anode compartment. The separation and sequestration/reutilization of CO2 is easilyrealised by water condensation

29. Molten carbonate fuel cells Cathode • The porous electrode is usuallyrealised in nickel oxide (NiO). • A mixture of air and CO2 is fed to the cathode • The use of CO2 present in the gas stream makes MCFC ideal candidates for carbon capture from CO2-rich flue gases

30. MCFC design concepts • MFCF cell construction is planar. • MCFC cells produce a limited amount of current compared with other types of fuel cells, the power density is low, so big cells are necessary. This makes them suitable for stationary power production. • The matrix is flexible and complies with mechanical stress, allowing the production of cells with a wide area. • Other than H2, other fuels (CH4, CO, CH3OH) can be employed.

31. SOFC Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

32. Solid oxide fuel cells Anode reaction: Cathode reaction:

33. Solid oxide fuel cells Electrolyte • The electrolyte is a fully dense ceramic, usually YSZ (Yttria Stabilized Zirconia) or GDC (Gadolinia doped Ceria). The absence of pores avoids crossover problems • The fuel cell operates from 600°C to 900°C, the high temperatures are necessary to have high ionic conductivity and reduce energy loss due to ionic conduction • The ions flowingthrough the electrolyte are O2-, water is generated in the anodic gas compartment

34. Solid oxide fuel cells Anode • Due to high working temperatures noble catalysts are not required • The anode is usually a porous cermet (mixture of ceramic and metal), namely Ni+YSZ (nickel + ZrO2)

35. Solid oxide fuel cells Cathode • The material of the cathode is a mixture of oxides with a crystalline structure and composition that makes them good electronic conductors. The two most used materials are LSM (Lantanium Strontium Manganite) and LSCF (Lantanium Strontium Cobalt Ferrite) • No noble metals are required but until now it has been impossible to avoid the use of rare earth elements to catalyse the reaction of oxygen.

36. SOFC design concepts

37. SOFC design concepts • In state of the art stacks, SOFC cells are very thin (0.3-1mm) and planar. • The preferred configuration is ASC (anode supported cells). Using a thick anode as mechanical support allows the use of a thin electrolyte, minimizing energylosses. • SOFC cells produce an amount of current of an order of magnitude higher than MCFC, the power density is high so it’s possible to have compact stacks. • The mechanical properties of the cells and the necessity to produce very thin layers makes it hard to manufacture wide dimension SOFCs. • Other than H2, other fuels (CH4, CO, CH3OH, NH3) can be employed.