HISTORY OF OCEANOGRAPHY, Part 2: Development of Modern Oceanography

1. HISTORY OF OCEANOGRAPHY,Part 2:Development of Modern Oceanography GEOL 1033

2. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Shallow areas of high traffic needed depth studies (sounding refers to determining water depth) & were well-charted for safety and navigation • Deep oceans were poorly known until late 1800s • Some soundings by explorers as early as 1500 (de la Cosa) • James Ross' soundings (early 1800'S) • Little incentive • Hard work = long, wet, heavy ropes + weight • This changed with the Challenger Expedition of 1872-1876! • Challenger used a steam engine to run a winch & piano wire replaced rope • Eventually, the economic incentive came from need to lay submarine telegraph cables between N A & Europe

3. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY - Challenger Expedition • John Murray and Charles Thomson conceived this first sailing expedition devoted entirely to oceanographic science • They coined the term 'oceanography' • The 4-year Challenger voyage was a milestone in the history of marine science.

4. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY - Challenger Expedition • 226' x 36' Sailing ship (2,306 ton corvette), auxiliary steam engine • Several 1 000 m cable covered most of deck • Travelled ~130 000 km- Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Antarctic oceans • Enormous biological collections of pelagic & benthic organisms • ~5 000 new species discovered by this one expedition! • Proved that life existed in deep ocean. • Dredged seafloor for organisms, rocks, & sediments • Collected data on atmosphere, weather, and physical & chemical properties of seawater • Obtained extensive data on bathymetry of the seafloor • Discovered the Mid-Atlantic Ridge & the Marianas Trench

5. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • During next 50 years (late 1800's-early 1900's), many nations copied Britain with own deep-sea expeditions • For example, Germany, Russia, Austria, USA, Norway, Denmark • Motivations included: fisheries, commerce, naval activities, transoceanic communication cables • Non-governmental & governmental funding of research • Some international cooperation developed • Evolution from descriptive to more quantitative science • New instruments developed for depth, temperature, salinity • USA • Albatross - Pacific Ocean, 1888-1920 • Blake - Gulf of Mexico & Atlantic Ocean, 1887-1890, included • Alex. Agassiz = became a famous biologist • Chas. Sigsbee = became a famous geologist

6. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Norwegian Fram under Nansen studied Arctic, 1893-1898 • Nansen invented a marine water sampling device, now called a Nansen bottle. • Fram was a specially engineered wooden ship • 1.2m-thick hull • 3 years intentionally frozen and drifted in polar ice • 5-year voyage firmly established Nansen's ideas that • No Polar continent • Arctic Ocean was a major ocean basin. • German Meteor Expedition (1925-1927) • Very modern studies of South Atlantic Ocean, including • Sediment studies • Chemical properties of seawater • Physical properties of seawater • Topography of seafloor • Initiated continuous echo sounder (PDR) where sound travel time was used to calculate water depths, so a depth profile established along ship's route.

7. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Later major British expeditions: • Antarctic Ocean and later all ocean deep-sea studies • Discovery I - 1925-1927 • Discovery II - 1930 • Discovery III - Later 1900's • Initial incentive was the whale industry • USA eventually lagged behind world, so established during the 1920's • WHOI (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute) • Scripps Institute of Oceanography at La Jolla, California (Began as a biological field station in 1912.)

8. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • An aerial view of Woods Hole (June 1985) showing a complex of oceanographic research facilities including • the National Marine Fisheries Service, • the Marine Biology Laboratory, and • the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute.

9. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Aerial view of part of the campus and pier of the Scripps Oceanographic Institute

10. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • World War II • Tremendous increase in interest in oceans by many nations during & after the war • Motivations • Warfare (ship, submarine, mine fields, amphibious activities) • Advances in technology • Greater awareness of natural disasters • Much learned • Post-war era • Many international political changes & Cold War began • Stimulated continuous studies of oceans • Government funding of research became very important • Seismic studies of oceanic crust initiated • Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory (LDEO) established in late 1940's at Columbia University in New York

11. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Mohole Project (USA) • Late 1950's to early 1960's • Purpose: drill & core through crust to upper mantle • Thinner crust in ocean basins • Had to develop new technology • Deep-water drilling • Ship stability • Terminated because • Costs were too high • Recession of late 1950s • Led to JOIDES • Joint Oceanographic Institutions for Deep Earth Sampling • Cooperative efforts of scientists of different U.S. institutions • Reduce costs of oceanographic research • Not waste new technology developed by Mohole Project • Still do some limited deep-sea upper crustal drilling & sampling

12. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Deep Sea Drilling Program (DSDP) • Initiated by JOIDES in 1964 • Commissioned the GlomarChallenger 1968 • Seabed cores totalled 96 km end-to-end • Sampled bottom sediments, rocks, etc. • Conducted other concurrent studies • Determined Earth's recent long-term climate changes • Confirmed theory of seafloor spreading – major contribution! • Ocean Margin Drilling Program (OMDP) • 10-year project during the 1980's • Less costly than DSDP • Focussed on N A continental margins (application oriented) • Commissioned a new, more modern ship, the GlomarExplorer 400' long

13. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • 1960's & 1970's: • On-board computers revolutionized research at sea • Dangers of marine pollution became widely recognized • Need for broad marine policies and management recognized • Use of satellites for navigation & remote sensing of oceans • International cooperation & programs increased from late 1950's • Because of the • High costs of marine research • Recession during late 1950's • International Geophysical Year (IGY) • 1957-8 • Multi-national efforts • Included oceanographic research • International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IDOE) • 1970's • Geochemical, biological, water circulation, & environmental studies • Seabed mineral assessment • Led to GEOSECS

14. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Geochemical Ocean Section Study (GEOSECS) • Chemical properties of seawater • Mid-Ocean Dynamics Experiment (MODE) • Studied water movements • Seabed Assessment Program • Studied mineral & petroleum occurrences in the oceans • Coastal Upwelling Project • High biological productivity in 1% of ocean's area • International Geodynamics Project • 1970's • Studied plate tectonics • led to FAMOUS • FAMOUS • 1970's • France & USA • Studied Mid-Atlantic Ridge with manned submersibles • Much was see firsthand and much learned about mid-ocean ridge rift valleys

15. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN OCEANOGRAPHY • Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) • 1980's outgrowth of OMDP & DSDP • Need to share the growing cost of ocean research • Annual membership fee of $3 million • USA plus other countries: Great Britain, Japan, West Germany, France, USSR (later dropped out), Canada (1983), & consortia of smaller nations sharing annual fee • Canada later dropped to a 3-nation consortia • New, bigger, better drilling ship built in Canada (JOIDESResolution) that can operate in worse weather, drill where hydrocarbons may be present, and in Arctic ice conditions • After about 18 years of high-seas research expeditions, ODP is to end with Leg #210.

16. Future Deep-Sea Drilling? • Yes, the “Integrated Ocean Drilling Program” (IODP) will replace ODP. • The Resolution may be still used for awhile, but a new, bigger, and better ship is planned. • Proposals include drilling for petroleum in deep-water areas. • 22 nations will contibute $406 million to support the first 5 years of the program • Research will include investigation of gas hydrates, climate dynamics (including the Arctic), continental margins, petroleum resources, the subsurface biosphere, earthquake phenomena, mineral deposits associated with the formation of oceanic lithosphere at mid-ocean ridges • This is timely for Canada with its young offshore oil and gas program in Atlantic Canada. • Canada needs about $31 million to participate during the first 5 years.

17. Future? • More international cooperation & cost sharing of basic research, e. g., IODP • More industry involvement in basic oceanographic research • Greater use of manned & unmanned submersibles • More applied & research uses for remote-controlled vehicles and cameras - safer • Greater use of satellites for navigation, remote sensing, weather prediction, basic research, etc. • Greater emphasis on applied research: energy, climate, coastal zones, biological productivity, environmental problems, mineral & petroleum exploration & exploitation, international laws of the sea, marine engineering

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