Changing Rural Environments:

1. Changing Rural Environments: Unit 2: section A In the human paper you will have to answer 3 questions; 1 on changing rural environments, 1 on population change and 1 on tourism. The paper is 1:30hrs long therefore you should aim to spend 30 minutes on each question.

2. Opposite is a copy of the syllabus for this unit of work. It should help you to highlight any gaps in your notes and learning. The Syllabus

3. A case study of a commercial farming area in the UK to • illustrate the following points: • The development of agri-businesses and the impact of • modern farming practices on the environment. • Demands from the market with reference to the demands of • the supermarket chains and food processing firms. • Competition from the global market. • Development of organic farming. • Government policies aimed at reducing the environmental • effects of high impact farming. • A case study of a rural area in the UK to illustrate the • following points: • Reasons for and consequences of rural depopulation and the decline in rural services in remote areas. • The characteristics and factors significant to a declining village. • Growth in the ownership of second homes. Main Case Studies Truth wall, Cornwall OR Longnor, Peak District East Anglia

4. Key idea no.1 The rural-urban fringe is under intense pressure due to urban sprawl and the increasing mobility of the population.

5. What is the rural urban fringe? Over time cities have expanded outwards, along with their influence on the surrounding area. This transitional zone between the countryside and the city is known as the rural-urban fringe (where residents live in the countryside but tend to work and socialise in the city).

6. The rural-urban fringe is under pressure from urban sprawl. This is the expansion of cities outwards into the surrounding countryside. This is because the population of the UK is continuing to rise and the number of households is increasing. Modern technology, including the use of email, video-calling, fast internet connections and teleworking, offers people and businesses greater flexibility as to where work takes place. Over the last 60 years the development of a 3500 kilometre motorway network has made cities more easily accessible for affluent motorists living in the countryside Why is the rural urban fringe under pressure? This means that people no longer need to live in urban areas to make a living!

7. Why is the rural urban fringe so important? Can you think of any out-of-town retail developments in the rural-urban fringe in Bristol? Does it have free parking? Is there lots of space? What is the infrastructure like around the area? The rural urban fringe is under pressure because the land is relatively cheap compared to urban areas. This makes it attractive to developers. They are very accessible as motorways often run through or past them linking them to the city and other areas. There is also more space available to build large developments such as business and retail parks.

8. The Mall at Cribbs Causeway Free Parking Good links/accessibility with M32 (to Bristol) M5 to the south and midlands (Birmingham) and M4 (Wales and London). All under one roof – large scale development due to the cheap cost of the land Who do you think might have been opposed to building the Mall?

9. Look at this cartoon – what do you think it is saying about the impacts of urban sprawl on the countryside?

10. The impact of urban sprawl on the countryside • Longer journeys by car from the edge of the city centre • More pollution • More traffic congestion and gridlock • Wildlife habitats destroyed and fragmented leading to wildlife numbers and diversity declining • The number of ‘tranquil’ areas have decreased by a third in the last 40 years.

11. Responses and Strategies for the future Planners in the UK decided that green beltswere the best way to stop urban sprawl. Such areas were located around urban areas to slow the rate of urban growth. However…this doesn’t always work as development either eats into the green belt or simply leapfrogs the projected land and continues on the higher quality countryside beyond. Therefore urban sprawl is likely to continue in light of the fact that the government wants to build 3 million new homes by 2020 (with a quarter to be located on green belt land!).

12. Past Paper Questions Click on the question to find the answer

13. Suburbanised Villages The characteristics of a suburbanised village: it is an original village core; infilling of houses between old houses; houses built along roads leading out of the village in ribbon developments and larger planned estates located outside the village core. A suburbanised village has residential population who sleep in the village but who travel to work in a nearby urban area. They have expanded as part of the larger process of counter-urbanisation.

14. How might suburbanised villages be changing? Using page 176 in understanding GCSE geography, write one way in which suburbanised villages are changing under the following headings: • Population • Housing • Employment • Services • Social • Transport • Environment

15. Key idea no. 2 Remote rural areas have undergone social and economic changes.

16. Case Study: Cornwall – the social & economic changes in rural areas • To understand general causes and results of rural depopulation in Cornwall. • To be able to recognise the features of a village in decline. • To understand why holiday and second homes are growing. • To realise the consequences of decline for rural services, income levels and standards of living.

17. Key word: rural depopulation Decline in numbers living in countryside areas, often due to out-migration

18. Where is Cornwall? Located in the remote south west corner of England, Cornwall is the county next to Devon. It is far from the core region of the south-east of England.

19. Why are remote rural areas in Cornwall in decline? • Reduction in traditional employment due to: • Declining labour requirements on mechanised farms; • Increased competition from abroad; • Exhaustion of natural resources (e.g. tin, copper & china clay).

20. Is everybody leaving Cornwall? Rural depopulation occurred between 1860 and 1951. From the 1960s onwards however, people began to move back to the countryside. The vast majority of these people were elderly, attracted by the mild climate and beautiful scenery. A quarter of the half million population here is over state pensionable age (compared to 19% across the UK). Today, the number of births is 4500 and the number of deaths is 6000 a year, giving a natural population decrease. Out migration of the younger, economically active population in search of education, jobs and affordable homes continues.

21. What are the results of rural depopulation in Cornwall? • Rural depopulation tends to now be confined to the most isolated rural areas, this results in the following problems: • An ageing population; • A decline in services; • Rural poverty; • Isolation.

22. The Cycle of rural decline Reduced wealth & demand for rural services Population decline Decline in traditional rural employment Reduced rate of natural increase Deterioration in age/sex structure Fewer employment opportunities Emigration

23. The characteristics of a declining village • Housing • Population • Employment • Services & transport • Social • Environment

24. The consequences of rural depopulation • Increase in second homes causes house prices to rise • Decline in rural services • Rural poverty

25. The increase in second homes A first time home in Cornwall is now more unaffordable than in London

26. The effect on rural services • The availability of services in the 10 000 rural parishes in England is in decline. • The amount of rural parishes without key services remained high. • Decreases in: • Banks, petrol stations, dentists, post offices & job centres • Increases in: • supermarkets, cashpoints, pubs & restaurants

27. The consequences of rural depopulation • When areas become saturated with second home owners, those living near the poverty line become hidden in statistics. • The 4 poorest wards in west Cornwall have more than ¼ are living in poverty. • Penwith has the lowest rate of economic activity in south-west England. • Out-migration is prevalent. • It is estimated that by 2026 1/3 of the population will be retired – this will put even more pressure on health & recreational services & shrink services for the young. The minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living.

28. Key idea no.3 Attempts should be made to ensure that rural living is sustainable.

29. The Rural Delivery Review, published in 2003 by the Department for the Environment, Farming and Rural Affairs (Defra) recognised the problems of the countryside, including: Lack of control over economic and social issues The loss of rural services and the complex and confusing system of rural funding Rural areas are disappearing under concrete at a rate of 54 sq km a year. Can rural areas be protected and sustainably developed a the same time?

30. It has 3 objectives: Conserving natural resources Protecting the environment Sustainable rural living Environmental Stewardship Scheme To conserve wildlife Increase biodiversity Improve landscape quality Provide flood management Promote public access to the countryside Rural Development Programmes To support sustainable farming methods by investing £1.6bn in various schemes (between 2000 and 2006). Other organisations… The Government established Natural England to conserve and manage tourism

31. Key idea no. 4 Commercial farming in favoured agricultural areas is subject to a number of human influences.

32. Arable(crops) Pastoral(animals) Mixed (both Dairy(cows) Hill Sheep Market gardening (e.g. flowers) Intensive- high labour and money (capital) Extensive - larger in size, low input and outputs per hectare Subsistence - producing food for yourself (mainly in LEDW) Commercial - farmers grow crops and rear animals to sell and make a profit Nomadic- shifting cultivation or seasonal movements of livestock or pasture Sedentary- farming in a fixed location Agri-businessLarge scale (Commercial) farming enterprises/several farms joined together to form one business. Farm types and key terms

33. Physical Factors Flat land Fertile Soils The sand, loam (a mix of sand and clay) and chalk soils are suitable for vegetables, fruit and root crops Long growing season Good rainfall Human Factors Located close to large urban areas (inc. London) which provides a large wealthy market Next to the M11 motorway and A1 which allows for rapid transport of the produce to market) Case Study: Arable farming – changes and damage to the landscape (East Anglia) Arable farming is both intensive and commercial (cash crops are sold for profit). It takes place primarily in the South East of England. The following is a list of human and physical factors that make this area ideal for farming crops:

34. 1940/50s Farms were small Field size small Output lower/less intensive Hedgerows present Crop rotation used(to replace nitrogen in the soil) Animals kept as part of rotation Farms were mixed Employing large numbers of people Today Farms are more intensive Crop rotation disappeared-chemical fertilizer used so crops are grown in same field year on year Herbicides and pesticides used Mechanization - reduce labour required Improved buildings(e.g. drying sheds for grain - temperature controlled) Agribusiness/Agrichemicals Hedgerows removed so that field size can be increased More land cultivated (known as extensification – woodland cleared) Case Study: Arable farming – changes and damage to the landscape (East Anglia) e.g. Higham Farm East Anglia These changes show the development of large scale agribusiness

35. The ‘Hedgerow Problem’ • Hedge cutting machinery is very expensive • Hedges make the edges and corners of fields difficult to farm • Many wild birds nest in hedgerows • Hedgerow insects help pollinate crops • Hedges help prevent soil erosion (thus cutting hedgerows increases soil erosion) • Hedges provide shelter for small animals • Hedge control takes up a farmers time • Insects and animals living in hedgerows may damage crops) • Hedges look attractive • Hedgerows protect crops from the wind • Hedges used up land that could be farmed • Weeds from hedgerows could spread into fields In addition to the Hedgerow problem, other changes in farming in MEDCs have also caused: • Nitrate pollution in rivers and lakes from the overuse of fertilizer (fish die due to lack of oxygen caused by eutrophication) 2.Cheap imports threaten domestic producers thus forcing them to diversify to survive.

36. What can be done to solve these problems? • Increasing field size – qualify for a grant to replant hedges/build stone walls as boundaries and so reducing size of fields. • Overuse of chemicals – encourage the use of natural fertilisers and the expansion of organic farming • Growth of factory farming – ban the battery farming of chickens, encourage greater free range production.

37. Demands from the market: In the past, the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) guaranteed farmers a minimum price for their crop. They were also given subsidies (money ) for what they produced). This led to overproduction of food (food surpluses). Subsidies are planned to be phased out however, by 2013. Supermarkets now have the power…

38. Supermarkets and food suppliers have considerable power over farmers. Supermarkets have high standards and often demand produce of a certain size/weight etc. They set the prices and the farmers have no choice in what they get paid for their goods. In turn food processing firms are under pressure from the supermarkets too. This means that will only want to buy products a low prices. All this means is that the farmer often sells their produce at a loss. To cut down on costs many factories are located close to farms. This means food can be processed quickly whilst it is still fresh e.g. Birds Eye peas are frozen within one hour of picking. Supermarkets and food processing firms

39. Government policies aimed at reducing the environmental effects of farming: Over the past couple of decades farmers have been paid by the Government and the EU not to produce so much food but instead to ‘set-aside’ land to improve wildlife habitats and encourage biodiversity (a wider range of wildlife). This was all part of CAP (common agricultural policy). Today CAP money is spent on improving animal welfare and environmental standards across the EU. • Environmental stewardship In 2005 farmers were offered incentives to conserve wildlife, maintain and enhance (improve) the landscape and protect natural resources e.g. Seed new hedgerows, leave grass headlands around fields and leave streams/ponds etc untouched. • Energy crop scheme Farmers now get paid to produce biofuels instead of food e.g. Straw-fired power station, Ely, Cambridgeshire.

40. Organic farming: This does not use synthetic chemicals such as pesticides and insecticides. This is better for the health of the farm workers, wildlife and environment. This type of farming is expanding in the UK. It accounts for 1.6% of all farms and is worth £2 billion per year. Where do people buy their organic produce? Why don’t all farms produce organically?

41. Key idea no. 5 • Sub-tropical and tropical rural areas are increasingly subject to change and conflict.

42. Subsistence food production in subtropical areas: the Amazon Rainforest Shifting cultivation (sometimes called slash and burn) is the main example of subsistence farming in the rainforest. This is when Amazonian tribes clear a patch of land leaving a few large trees for protection (about 1 hectare) and burn it so that the ash fertilises the soil. The main crop ‘manioc’ is planted with yams, beans and pumpkins in clearings called ‘chagras’. After the nutrients are gone, the Amazonians move on to farm another piece of land, allowing the area to recover. This type of farming is sustainable.

43. Soil erosion is caused by: Deforestation Cultivation on slopes Ranching Heavy machinery compacting the soil Mining Plantations of one crop (monoculture) Over cultivation Irrigation without soil drainage Overgrazing The impact of soil erosion: The cycle in the rainforest is delicate. Without trees (after deforestation) there is no layer of humus (made of rotting leaves) to add organic nutrients to the soil. The lack of tress also means less interception so heavy rain washes the soil away. This can cause ‘gullying’ which is when the water carves out gully-shaped hollows in the soil. Rivers flood more frequently due to receiving more water. The soil quickly loses its fertility. The impact of soil erosion in the rainforest

44. The impact of forestry and mining The 5000 miles of the Trans Amazon Highway built in the 1960s has brought development at a cost to the Amazon. As much as 80% of deforestation has occurred within 30km of official roads. Clear felling has supplied many jobs and incomes to the people of Brazil. Local people are now also involved in soya farming and ranching which now dominates the landscape. This is known as ‘cash cultivation’ or ‘commercial farming’. Land in tropical regions is also being cleared for mining operations and oil exploration. Open pit mining for precious metals for example, requires tress to be felled. The soils are then pumped with water across sieves. The heavy metals remain on the sieves as the water and sediment are washed away. Mercury added to amalgamate gold then enters the water and pollutes the river systems. Silt added to the river system can also kill fish.

45. Changes to agriculture caused by irrigation and appropriate technology developments. Irrigation is the artificial watering of the land and is used by farmers in dry climates. Water can be transferred to the field by simple gravity fed canals dug away from rivers with earthen banks and sluice gates that open and allow river water and nutrients to flood fields. Wells or holes dug down to the water table provide water for individual farms.

46. The Aswan Dam: Egypt In Egypt, water management of the Nile allows rice, sugar cane etc. to be grown. These feed the growing population. This is good for a number of reasons: • Assured Water Supply • Desert reclaimed for farmland • Cultivated are doubled from 4% to 8% • No longer any risk from summer floods • Electricity supply from HEP for the whole country

47. The impact of irrigation Human mismanagement of the land in the Indus valley in Pakistan on the edge of the Thar desert has converted marginal land to desert (desertification). Soil erosion is a prominent here due to over cultivation and over grazing. Salinization and water logging are frequent occurrences. Salinization occurs when high temperatures draw water and salts up through the soil via capillary action. This causes the soil to become saline and encourages the development of a thick crust which does not allow water to infiltrate causing water logging.

48. Appropriate Technology Sustainability can be achieved by providing a level of technology in terms of size and complexity that makes it suitable for use by local people (appropriate technology). Projects should therefore be small scale, affordable, suited to the local environment and improve their lives for today and generations to comes.

49. Appropriate Technology Examples… • Rainwater conservation • Soil conservation • Contour ploughing See page 189 in New Understanding GCSE geography for an explanation of how these work

50. The impact of rural-urban migration and failing agricultural systems. As the population grows, people are moving in greater numbers to urban areas from rural areas in search of better opportunities. What are the impacts? Look to your revision guide/notes/page 189 in New Understanding GCSE Geography.