Revision

1. Revision Altogether twenty-two lectures are discussed in this course. Now let’s roughly review what we have learned this term: Introduction Grammatical hierarchy(语法层次) • Grammar is the structural system of a language. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks:the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word, and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank.

2. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase; the phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme. • The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit while the morpheme is the minimum or the lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents--- the morphemes.

3. 一、动词的时态(Tense) • In this lecture we discussed the features of tense and we talked about uses of the present tense, the future tense, the progressive tense, the perfective tense, the contrast between the simple past and the present perfective and the sequence of tenses. 二、动词的语态(Voice) • As has been pointed out, a sentence/ clause whose predicator (predicate verb) is active is called an “active sentence”, and a sentence/ clause whose predicator (predicate verb) is passive is called a “passive sentence”. The

4. subject in the active sentence is the agent or doer of an action, and in the passive the recipient of the action. • In this lecture we discussed the use of active voice and passive voice and some special points that we should pay much attention to verb voices. 三、非谓语动词(Non-finite forms) • English verb have three non-finite forms: infinitive, participles and gerund. In this lecture we talked about the uses of different non-finite forms or types, their tense and their voices, some non-finite patterns and exceptions.

5. 四、虚拟语气（Subjunctive mood） • In English, when we express hypothetical and non-factual meanings, we need to use subjective mood of verbs. There two forms of the subjunctive: be –subjective and were-subjective. In this lecture the uses of the subjunctive mood are dwelt on and we also discussed its forms and some special subjunctive sentence constructions. 五、情态动词（Modal auxiliary） • As has been pointed out before, English verbs, in terms of their functions in forming verb phrases, fall into two major categories: main verbs and auxiliaries. Auxiliaries can again be divided into primary auxiliaries (基本助动词), modal

6. auxiliaries, and semi-auxiliaries. The function of primary auxiliaries (do, have, be ) is to combine with main verbs to form complex verb phrases. And this lecture concentrated on the uses of modal auxiliaries and the next on semi-auxiliaries. 六、名词（Noun) • This lecture covered three aspects of noun, including “the classification of nouns”, “the number forms of nouns”, and “the case of nouns”. 七、形容词和副词(Adj.& Adv.) • This lecture falls into two parts: the place of adj. & adv. and the comparative and superlative form of adj. & adv. As we know most adjectives and

7. adverbs are gradable and can be used in comparative clauses. When appearing in comparative constructions, adjectives and adverbs take special grammatical forms which are called “forms of comparison”. So in the second part of this lecture, regular & irregular comparison of adj. & adv. , some comparative constructions and the way to express “How many times is A more than B?” were dwelt on. 八、冠词(Articles) • English has two kinds of articles: the definite article (the) and the indefinite article (a/an). In this lecture, the classification of articles and their usage were discussed .

8. 九、限定词 (Determiners) • Words that precede any pre-modifying adjectives in a noun phrase and which denote such referential meanings(所指意义) as specific reference(特指), genetic reference(类指), definite quantity(确定数量) or indefinite quantity are referred to as determiners. • In this lecture, determiners are briefly discussed, including the classification of determiners and a comparative study of some determiners about which students easily get confused. 十、数词(Numeral) • Words that precede any pre-modifying

9. adjectives ina noun phrase and which denote such referential meanings(所指意义) as definite quantity(确定数量) or indefinite quantity are referred to as numeral. There are two kinds of numerals: cardinal numeral(one, two, fifty-two etc.) and ordinal numeral( first, tenth, fiftieth etc.). Uses of different numerals in this lecture were discussed. 十一、介词（Preposition) • Prepositions are a class of structural words that indicate various semantic relations between words or expressions. Prepositions are usually divided into the following three types: simple prepositions,compound

10. prepositions, phrasal prepositions. In this lecture, classification of prepositions, collocation of prepositions with adjectives, verbs and nouns were discussed, and then the usage of some commonly-used prepositions were dealt with. 十二、状语从句(Adverbial Clause) • Adverbial clauses are those that perform the function of adverbial in a complex sentence. Semantically, this kind of clause can be subdivided into adverbial clauses of time, place, manner, cause, result, purpose, condition, and concession. In this lecture usage of different adverbial clauses were discussed and the contrast

11. between the expressions about which students are easily to get confused were made. 十三、定于从句（Attributive Clause) • In this lecture,attributive clauses were discussed in the following aspects : those relative conjunctions introducing attributive clauses, the uses of attributive clauses, contrast of some relative conjunctions,and the uses of relative adverbs and relative adjective,etc. 十四、名词性从句(Nominal Clauses) • Nominal clauses has been discussed in this lecture. More specifically, function and types

12. of nominal clauses are dealt with here, for example: nominal clauses function as subject, nominal clauses function as object, nominal clauses function as predicative, etc. 十五、主谓一致(Subject-verb Concord) • By subject-verb concord is meant agreement between subject and predicate verb in number. There are three principles guiding subject-verb concord; they are principles of grammatical concord(语法一致原则), notional concord(意义一致原则)and proximity(就近原则). • In this lecture, guiding principles, problems of concord with nouns, with collective nouns

13. as subject, with a coordinate subject, with expressions of quantity as subject, and other problems of subject-verb concord were dwelt on. 十六、否定（Negation） • Negation plays an important role in English language all the time. From this lecture we knew what negation means and how it is formed and the uses of negation and some exceptions were talked about here too. • 十七、倒装（Inverted Order） • Inverted order are discussed in this lecture. Generally, inversion can be divided into two kinds: complete inversion and partial inversion.

14. Some concrete examples were given here to show how the inverted order happens and what functions the inverted order has. 十八、反意疑问句(Tag question) • Usages of tag question are discussed in this lecture. It is pointed that in addition to the normal tag questions, we should pay much attention to some exceptions in dealing with this kind of question, which were talked about in detail here. 十九、替代（Substitution） • Substitution is a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual cohesion. There are three kinds of substitution: nominal

15. substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution, and therefore three kinds of substitutes: nominal substitutes, verbal substitutes, and clausal substitutes. So this lecture were concentrating on these three parts and let us know what is nominal substitution, verbal substitution or clausal substitution. 二十、省略(Ellipsis) • Like substitution, ellipsis is also a grammatical device for avoiding repetition and achieving textual cohesion. If substitution is the replacement of an identical item by a substitute, ellipsis means omission of the item or replacement of the item by a zero substitute.

16. As ellipsis and substitution perform the same function, they are, in many cases, interchangeable, eg: • A: Which do you prefer, the red or the green scarf. • B: I’d like the red (scarf). I’d like the red one. • When an identical item is omitted or replaced, attention is focused on the neighbouring element. Therefore, ellipsis and substitution are also means of emphasis. • Ellipsis has been discussed in this lecture, which falls into three parts: the omission of simple sentence, the omission of complex sentence and

17. the omission of coordinate sentence. 二十一、It- 句型 (“It” patterns) • “It” patterns have been discussed in this lecture, including empty “it”, anticipatory “it” and “it” in an emphatic construction. “It” has different function in the three different “It” patterns. They were discussed respectively here. 二十二、直接引语和间接引语（Direct and Indirect Speech） • In quoting someone’s words, we can either use the direct speech, ie repeat the actual words of the speaker without changes in grammar, or use

18. the indirect speech, ie tell what he said without repeating the actual words. Direct speech is usually put in quotation marks; indirect speech normally occurs after a reporting verb without being put in quotation marks. The present lecture is devoted to the transformation of direct speech into indirect, and this transformation usually entails some changes in tense forms, word order, pronouns, determiners, temporal or locative adverbials as well as other aspects of grammar. • So four major problems are discussed in this lecture: indirect statements, indirect questions, indirect commands and exclamations and mixed types of indirect speech.

19. Sample Mistake Identification Directions: Each of the following sentences has four parts underlined and marked A. B. C. and D. Identify the one that needs correction and correct them. 1.The music he wrote was very different fromanywho had been • a b c composed before. (c. that) d 2.This class has cancelledbecause too few students had registered • a b c before registration closed. (a. has been casncelled) • d

20. 3.The plan had been to go either walking or swimming • a b but the weather was so bad they didn’t to somewhere. (d. anywhere) c d 4.People think that they have enough money to pay • a b the electricity their television sets, washing machines and • c • refrigerators use. (b. to pay for ) d • 5.They adoptedall the necessary measures with a view • a b c • to raise production. (d. to raising ) D 6.Sandra has not rarely missed a play or concert since she was a b c seventeen years old. (a. rarely ) d

21. 7.This school has had a number of distinguishedformer a b c • pupils. Many of us have become famous today. (d. many of them) • d • 8. No dramatist in the history of the theater has had the insight into • a b • human nature than Shakespeare had. (c. that ) c d • I did not choose any of the three puddings, because I found a b neither of them satisfactory. (c. none ) c d • 10.      He complied with the requirement that all graduate students in • a b c • education were to write a thesis. (d. write) • d

22. PartⅡ Directions: There are 40 questions in this part. Each question is a sentence with something missing. Below each sentence are four words or phrases marked A, B, C and D. Chose one word or phrase that best completes the sentence. 1. Sometimes very young children have trouble ________ fact from fiction and may believe that such things actually exist. A. for separating B. to separate C. having separated D. separating 2. The second book was ________ by August 1952, but two years later, the end was still nowhere in sight. A. completed B. to have completed C. to complete D. to have been completed

23. 3. Whatever the causes, English at the end of the 20th century is more widely spoken and written than any other language ________ . A. ever was B.had ever been C. has ever been D.would ever be 4. In this experiment, they are wakened several times during the night, and asked to report what they ________. A. had just been dreaming B. have just been dreaming C. are just dreaming D. had just dreamt 5. It is of the utmost importance that you ________ here on time. A. be B. shall be C. are to be D. must be

24. 6. He might have been killed _________ the arrival of the police. A. except for B. but for C. with D. for 7. These figures are not consistent ________ the results obtained in previous experiments. A. to B. with C. for D.in 8. The animal has a brain which is nearest _________. A. in man’s size B. in size to man C. in size to man’s D. to the size in man 9. The problem of ________ to select as his successor was quickly disposed of. A. what B. whom C. which D. how

25. 10. Britain’s press is unusual ________ it is divided into two very different types of newspaper：the quality press and the popular press. A. in how B. in what C. in which D. in that 11. Some companies have introduced flexible working time with less emphasis on pressure _________. A. than more on efficiency B. and more efficiency C. and more on efficiency D. than efficiency 12. He often sat in a small bar drinking considerably more than _________. A. he was in good health B. his health was good C. his good health was D. was good for his health

26. 13. All the parts of these washing machines are _________, so that it is very convenient to replace them. A. normalized B. modernized C. mechanized D. standardized 14. I was _________ by their kindness and move to tears. A. preoccupied B. embarrassed C. overwhelmed D. counseled 15. In many cultures people who were thought to have the ability to ________ dreams were likely to be highly respected. A. interpret B. intervene C. inherit D. impart

27. PartⅢ Cloze Directions: There are 20 blanks in the following passage. For each blank there are four choices marked A, B, C, and D after the passage. You should choose the ONE that best fits into the passage.(10 points) During recent years we have heard much about “race”: how this race does certain things and that race believes certain things and so on. Yet, the (1) phenomenon of race consists of a few surface indications. We judge race usually (2) the colouring of the skin: a white race, a brown race, a yellow race and a black race. But (3) you were to remove the skin you could not (4) anything about the race to which the individual belonged. There is (5) in physical structure, the brain or the internal organs to (6) a difference. There are four types of blood. (7) types are found in

28. every race, and no type is distinct to any race. Human brains are the (8). No scientists could examine a brain and tell you the race to which the individual belonged. Brains will (9) in size, but this occurs within every race. (10) does size have anything to do with intelligence. The largest brain (11) examined belonged to a person of weak (12). On the other hand, some of our most distinguished people have had (13) brains. Mental tests which are reasonably (14) show no differences in intelligence between races. High and low test results both can be recorded by different members of any race. (15) equal educational advantages, there will be no difference in average standings, either on account of race or geographical location. Individuals of every race (16) civilization to go backward or forward. Training and education can

29. change the response of a group of people, (17) enable them to behave in a (18) way. The behavior and ideals of people change according to circumstances, but they can always go back or go on to something new (19) is better and higher than anything (20) the past. (1) A. complete B. full C. total D. whole (2) A. in B. from C. at D. on (3) A. since B. if C. as D. while (4) A. speak B. talk C. tell D. mention (5) A. something B. everything C. nothing D. anything (6) A. display B. indicate C. demonstrate D. appear • A. All B. Most C. No D. Some (8) A. same B. identical C. similar D. alike (9) A. remain B. increase C. decrease D. vary

30. 10) A. Only B. Or C. Nor D. So (11) A. ever B. then C. never D. once (12) A. health B. body C. mind D. thought (13) A. big B. small C. minor D. major (14) A. true B. exact C. certain D. accurate (15) A. Provided B. Concerning C. Given D. Following (16) A. make B. cause C. move D. turn (17) A. and B. but C. though D. so (18) A. ordinary B. peculiar C. usual D. common (19) A. that B. what C. whichever D. whatever (20) A. for B. to C. which D. in

31. Answer:（1）D（2）B（3）B（4）C（5）C（6）B（7）A（8）A（9）D（10）C（11）D（12）CAnswer:（1）D（2）B（3）B（4）C（5）C（6）B（7）A（8）A（9）D（10）C（11）D（12）C （13）B（14）D（15）C（16）B（17）A（18）B （19）A（20）D Part Ⅳ Answer the following question briefly: 1. Please explain grammatical hierarchy. Grammar hierarchy is the structural system of a language.The grammar.of the English language is organized into five ranks:the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word, and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank.Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one

32. clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase; the phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit while the morpheme is the minimum or the lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituents--- the morphemes.