Chapter 26

1. The Tree of Life Chapter 26

2. Origins of Life The Earth formed as a hot mass of molten rock about 4.5 billion years ago (BYA) -As it cooled, chemically-rich oceans were formed from water condensation Life arose spontaneously from these early waters Life may have infected Earth from some other planet -This hypothesis is termed Panspermia

3. Fundamental Properties of Life Cellular organization Sensitivity Growth Development Reproduction Regulation Homeostasis Heredity

4. Figure 1.3 Life’s Calendar Origin of Life Earth forms Oldest fossils Photo- synthesis evolves Eukaryotic cells evolve Multi- cellular organisms Abundant life

5. Figure 1.3 Life’s Calendar Firsthominids Homosapiens Earth forms Origin of Life Oldest fossils Photo- synthesis evolves Eukary- otic cells Multi- cellular Abundant life Forests Insects First mammals Dinosaurs dominant First land plants First land animals Birds Flowering plants Rise of Mammals Aquatic life Abundant fossils

6. Figure 1.3 Life’s Calendar Recorded history fills the last 5 seconds of day 30. Modern humans appeared in the last 10 minutes of day 30. Earth forms Origin of Life Oldest fossils Photo- synthesis evolves Eukary- otic cells Multi- cellular Abundant life Forests Insects First mammals Dinosaurs dominant Birds Flowering plants Rise of Mammals Land plants Land animals Aquatic life Abundant fossils

7. Conditions on Early Earth First organisms emerged about 3.8 BYA (some suggest even earlier) Early atmosphere had CO2, N2, H2O and H2 -Reducing atmosphere In 1953, Miller and Urey did an experiment that reproduced this early atmosphere -Used electrodes to simulate lightning -Small organic molecules were generated in their apparatus

12. Evolution of Cells RNA may have been first genetic material Amino acids polymerized into proteins Metabolic pathways emerged Lipid bubbles became living cells with cell membranes Several innovations contributed to diversity of life -Eukaryotic cells -Sexual reproduction -Multicellularity

15. Classification of Organisms More than 2000 years ago, Aristotle divided living things into animals and plants Later, basic units were called genera -Felis (cats) and Equus (horses) In the 1750s, Karl von Linne (aka. Carolus Linnaeus) instituted the use of two-part names, or binomials -Homo sapiens

16. Classification of Organisms Taxonomy is the science of classifying living things • -A classification level is called a taxon • Scientific names avoid the confusion caused by common names

17. The Linnaean Hierarchy Taxa are based on shared characteristics -Domain (most shared) -Kingdom -Phylum -Class -Order -Family -Genus -Species (least shared)

20. Limitations of the Hierarchy Many hierarchies are being re-examined based on the results of molecular analysis -Linnaean taxonomy does not take into account evolutionary relationships -Linnaean ranks are not equivalent -Legume family (16,000 species) -Cat family (36 species) The phylogenetic and systematic revolution is underway

21. Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Grouping Organisms Carl Woese proposed a six-kingdom system

22. Grouping Organisms Biologists are increasingly adopting a three-domain phylogeny based on rRNA studies -Domain Archaea -Domain Bacteria -Domain Eukarya Each of these domains forms a clade Archaea and Eukarya are more closely related to each other than to bacteria

23. During evolution, microbes swapped genetic information via horizontal gene transfer (HGT)

24. Bacteria Most abundant organisms on Earth Extract nitrogen from the air, and recycle carbon and sulfur Perform much of the world’s photosynthesis Responsible for many forms of disease Highly diverse Most taxonomists recognize 12-15 different groups

25. Archaea Prokaryotes that are more closely related to eukaryotes Characteristics -Cell walls lack peptidoglycan -Membrane lipids are branched -Distinct rRNA sequences Divided into three main groups

26. Methanogens -Use H2 to reduce CO2 to CH4 -Strict anaerobes that live in swamps Extremophiles -Thermophiles – High temperatures -Halophiles – High salt -Acidophiles – Low pH Nonextreme archaea -Grow in same environments as bacteria -Nanoarchaeum equitans – Smallest cellular genome

28. Eukarya Prokaryotes ruled the earth for at least one billion years Eukaryotes appeared about 2.5 BYA Their structure and function allowed multicellular life to evolve Eukaryotes have a complex cell organization -Extensive endomembrane system divides the cell into functional compartments

29. Mitochondria and chloroplasts most likely gained entry by endosymbiosis -Mitochondria were derived from purple nonsulfur bacteria -Chloroplasts from cyanobacteria

30. The Four Eukaryotic Kingdoms Protista -Unicellular with few multicellular organisms -Not monophyletic • Fungi • Plantae • Animalia • -Largely multicellular organisms • -Each is a distinct evolutionary line derived from a unicellular protist

32. Key Eukaryotic Characteristics Compartmentalization -Allows for increased subcellular specialization Multicellularity -Allows for differentiation of cells into tissues Sexual reproduction -Allows for greater genetic diversity

35. Viruses Are not organisms and so cannot be placed in any of the kingdoms Are literally “parasitic” chemicals -DNA or RNA wrapped in protein Can only reproduce within living cells Vary greatly in appearance and size

36. Making Sense of the Protists Protists are a paraphyletic group -Catchall for eukaryotes that are not plant, fungus or animal Divided into six groups -However, at least 60 protists do not fit into any of these groups

37. A new kingdom, Viridiplantae, has been suggested -Plants + green algae

38. Sorting Out the Animals Molecular systematics is leading to a revision of evolutionary relationships among animals Segmentation has been used in the past to group arthropods and annelids close together -rRNA sequences now suggest that these two groups are distantly related Segmentation likely evolved independently in these two groups, as well as in chordates

39. Segmentation is regulated by the Hox gene family -Members were co-opted three times