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Logos (Greek for “word”) refers primarily to the internal consistency and clarity of the message and to the logic of its reasons and support. Ethos (Greek for “character) refers to the credibility of the writer/speaker.Pathos (Greek for “suffering” or “experience” pertains to the emotional appeal of an argument as well as the audience’s imaginative sympathies.
Enthymeme is an incomplete logical structure that depends upon one or more unstated assumptions (values, beliefs, principles). An enthymeme combines a claim with a reason. In terms of structure, present your reason as a because clause attached to the claim. • Women should be barred from combat duty because in many cases the presence of women would harm company morale.
Warrant refers to the value, belief or principle your audience has to hold if the soundness of the argument is to be guaranteed or warranted. Combat units need to maintain high morale to function effectively • Grounds are the supporting evidence (facts, data, statistics, testimony, examples) which justify your claim. Evidence and examples of how women in combat leads to romantic/sexual relationships and competition, male bonding in peril, women not strong enough to carry gear and/or injured soldier, etc. • Backing is the argument supporting the warrant. Arguments to illustrate the warrant in order to show that men need cohesion as a unit in order to function, would not be able to see women wounded, would lead to rise in POWs.
Conditions of Rebuttal in Toulmin’s system asks us to imagine how an audience would try to refute our argument. Arguments would need to show that it would not harm morale and offer examples when men and women work closely in danger (space missions, mountain climbing), sexual activity would be punished, folks would adjust in time. • Qualifier refers to words or phrases limiting the force of your claim. “In many cases.”
“I Have a Dream” delivered August 28, 1963 during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom • A. Philip Randolph one of the primary organizers • Earlier made the clarion call to march on Washington June 1941 • Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8802, first Presidential decree in race relations since Emancipation Proclamation. Est. Fair Employment Practices Committee
Tone moves from angry to cautious to hopeful • Anaphora—King uses the repetition of a phrase at the beginning of sentences as a rhetorical tool to emphasize and shape ideas “One hundred years later” “Now is the time” “I have a dream” “Let Freedom Ring”
Allusion makes reference to historical, Biblical or literary texts or figures “Five score years ago” allusion to Gettysburg Address “unalienable rights of life liberty and the pursuit of happiness” allusion to Declaration of Independence “Free at last! Free at last! Thank God Almighty, we are free at last” allusion to popular spritual
Metaphor involves an implicit comparison or similarity between a literal object and a metaphoric object. It says one object is as another. “The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune” Equality is discussed in terms of a “check” or “promissory note.” Simile compares using like or as “we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream.”
Personification (prosopopeia in Greek) occurs when inanimate objects are given human characteristics. “quicksands of racial injustice to the solid rock of brotherhood” “This sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent will not pass until there is an invigorating autumn of freedom and equality.” This line also features a Shakespearean allusion "Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this son [or sun] of York," from “Richard III”
Baptist sermon and Call and Response • Features the rhythm and inflection of a traditional sermon • Call and Response is a rhetorical feature begun in Africa and carried over into the New World. It acts as series of statements and responses in terms of an oratorical or musical invitation to participate with and address a speaker in order to establish community and commonality.
Arguments of Definition • Formal definitions related to Genus and Species • Operational Definitions discuss conditions and circumstances • Definitions by example involve comparison and contrast in terms of membership in a named class/group.
King’s “I Have a Dream” • Enthymeme: The Constitutional promise of democracy has not been fulfilled because African Americans do not possess social, political and economic equality. • The warrant is that equality is a cornerstone principle of American democracy from its foundation. • The grounds the evidence in Declaration of Independence and Emancipation Proclamation.
The backing is his dream or vision of a harmonious and egalitarian society which his audience shares. • The conditions for rebuttal occurs when he cautions that they must not be guilty of wrongful deeds; “we cannot walk alone.” • Qualifiers appear in terms of “hope” and “dream,” not as demands or a call to arms.
Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique (1963) • Friedan establishes her credibility/ her argument’s ethos by employing personal as well as professional authority (housewife and reporter). • Consciousness discussed as chrysalis in the introduction: “the problem lay buried,” “a strange stirring” which they cannot articulate. • Mixes anecdotes and narratives next to demographic evidence regarding rates of marriage and childbirth.
She problematizes motherhood and femininity as compulsory for postwar American women. • Homogeneous life course for all women. • “Words like ‘emancipation’ and ‘career’ sounded strange and embarrassing” earlier progress rolled back after the war. • Health care officials refuse to take women’s concerns seriously. Women have to figure it out on their own.
Uses interviews as evidence to interject women’s primary experiences. • The problem comes to be defined by the expert class as related to education, lack of femininity, lack of role acceptance. • Housewife= wife, mistress, mother, nurse, consumer, cook, chauffer; expert on interior decoration, child care, appliance repair, furniture refinishing, nutrition, and education.”
“the problem that has no name” is symptomatic of the “feminine mystique” • “The feminine mystique says that the highest value and the only commitment for women is the fulfillment of their own femininity. It says that the great mistake of Western culture, through most of its history, has been the undervaluation of this femininity. It says this femininity is so mysterious and intuitive and close to the creation and origin of life that man-made science may never be able to understand it.
But however special and different, it is in no way inferior to the nature of man; it may even in certain respects be superior. The mistake, says the mystique, the root of women’s troubles in the past is that women envied men, women tried to be like men, instead of accepting their own nature, which can find fulfillment only in sexual passivity, male domination, and nurturing maternal love.”
Enthymeme: women in America are suffering physical and psychological distress because rigid gender roles limit them in terms of femininity as wives and mothers confined to the home. • The warrant is the shared belief in the equality of the sexes and in women’s individual choice.
The grounds include statistical evidence about the population explosion, early age of marriage, number of housewives alongside anecdotes and interviews illustrating women’s dissatisfaction and distress. • The backing is the examples from the earlier generation of women who struggled to gain entrance to the university and the workplace.
The conditions for rebuttal are the claims presented from the expert class that the problem stems from education, lack of femininity or the scope of domestic labour. • Friedan doesn’t include any qualifiers that the group she discusses is not representative of all women or all women’s experience.
Critical assessment • bell hooks offers the most staunch criticism • Who will care for the children when white middle class women are freed from the home? • Friedan’s argument “can also be seen as a case study of narcissism, insensitivity, sentimentality, and self-indulgence.” • Objects to Friedan calling the suburban home a “comfortable concentration camp.”
“Hipster: The Dead End of Western Civilization” by Douglas Haddow • Enthymeme: Hipster pastiche is an empty aesthetic gesture leading to modernity’s end because the subculture exists without intention or a conscious context. • The warrant is the belief that all subcultures should strive for progressive or revolutionary change.
The grounds cover anecdotal evidence and interviews gathered at notorious hipster parties. • The backing consists of an overview of previous countercultures since WWII who sought to define themselves apart from previous generations. • Conditions for rebuttal rest in the definition of hipsters as a consumer group rather than another counterculture. • Qualifiers?
Critical assessment • Haddow ignores substantial interdisciplinary research gathered which examines the role of marketing and advertising to teenagers in the postwar era. • The author’s tone and diction is arrogant and hostile. A reasonable audience has to remain sceptical and unconvinced. • The author exaggerates the political importance of previous countercultural groups.
Sets up an conflict between message and audience. • He ignores the totemic function of aesthetics in the hipster scene. In the past, countercultures of poor kids adapted symbols or affectations of the ruling classes; hipsters, in turn, are affluent kids adopting working class icons such as beer and cigarettes.
