Chapter 8 Motivation: Cognitive and Behavioral Theories and Techniques

1. Chapter 8Motivation: Cognitive and Behavioral Theoriesand Techniques

2. Learning Goals • Describe how people develop expectations about what will happen to them • Appreciate differences in the values people place on the results of their behavior • Understand the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic outcomes • Discuss the role of equity in human motivation and behavior

3. Learning Goals (Cont.) • Use the techniques of goal setting • Describe the powerful technique of behavior modification • Discuss some international aspects of motivation

4. Chapter Overview • Introduction • Expectancy Theory • Equity Theory • Goal Setting Theory • Behavior Modification • International Aspects of the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation • Ethical Issues in the Cognitive and Behavioral Theories of Motivation

5. Introduction • Four motivation theories that differ from those in Chapter 7 • Three use cognitive processes to explain human behavior • The fourth focuses on observable behavior, not cognitive processes

6. Introduction • Cognitive theories • Expectancy Theory: describes internal processes of choice among different behaviors • Equity Theory: describes how and why people react when they feel unfairly treated • Goal Setting Theory: focuses on how to set goals for people to reach • Behavioral Theory • Behavior Modification: focuses on observable behavior, not internal psychological processes

7. Expectancy Theory • Assumptions • Forces in the environment and person interact to affect behavior • People choose among different courses of action • People make choices based on preferences for outcomes of actions • Choices are rational; based on perceived value of outcomes of actions

8. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • People have different preferences for different outcomes • Reflect on your preferences for different course grades • You will behave in a way to earn your preferred grade • You also must believe you will receive your desired grade

9. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Basic concepts • Expectancy • Subjective probability that a person’s action will be followed by an outcome • Ranges from 0 to 1 • 0 = no connection between an act and an outcome • 1 = connection between the act and the outcome is certain • .50 = 50-50 chance that an act will be followed by an outcome

10. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Basic concepts (cont.) • Two types of expectancy • Effort-performance expectancy: person’s belief that effort leads to a desired performance level(E P) • Performance-outcome expectancy: person’s belief that performance will be followed by some outcome (P O)

11. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Simple Expectancy Theory model Performance Effort Outcomes View as flows through a pipeline

12. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Basic concepts (cont.) • Valence: preference people have among outcomes • Attraction (+) • Indifference (0) • Avoidance (-) • Range: -3 to +3; shows degree of attraction or avoidance a person associates with an outcome

13. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Relationships between expectancies and valences • People perceive a connection between effort and desired performance level • People have different preferences for different outcomes • People also perceive a link between that performance level and an outcome

14. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Formula showing relationships nMotivation = ƒ  (E P)i (P O)i Vii=1 

15. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Multiple outcomes are possible for behavior • Outcomes: something positively valued (a raise) or negatively valued (being fired) • Person's perception of the valence of all outcomes for a behavior decides the choice of behavior • Go toward positively valent outcomes • Avoid negatively valent outcomes • May consider several possible outcomes at once

16. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Expectancies and valences combine multiplicatively • Importance of a value of 0 for an expectancy or a valence • Positively valent outcome but expectancy = 0: little motivation • Indifferent to an outcome (valence = 0): not highly motivated even with expectancy = 1

17. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Motivation = expectancy x valence Valence Effort Performance Outcomes Expectancy Expectancy Text book Figure 8.1

18. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Types of outcomes • Extrinsic outcomes: what people receive from someone else for their performance • Intrinsic outcomes: what people give to themselves for their performance • Types of motivation • Extrinsic motivation (“pull”) • Intrinsic motivation (“push”)

19. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Extrinsicoutcomes Effort Performance Intrinsicoutcomes Performance and different outcomes

20. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Extrinsic outcomes • Pay increases, promotion, supervisor's praise, quality awards, larger office space • Managers give or withhold extrinsic outcomes for employee performance • Employee controls the performance level but not directly control the outcome

21. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Extrinsic outcomes (cont.) • Time delay of extrinsic outcomes • Example: annual or semiannual pay increases • Can reduce motivation effect • Related to many different needs: physiological, esteem, self-actualization • Provides food and shelter • Sign of accomplishment • Gives feedback about performance

22. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Intrinsic outcomes • More individual control • Little time delay; increases motivation effect • Managers do not directly deliver them • Managers can provide opportunities for people to experience intrinsic outcomes. • Associated mainly with higher order needs such as self-actualization

23. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Blockages between effort and performance • Individual blockages • Skills and abilities: perceived and real • Task difficulty • Experience with task or problem • Can increase or decrease the effort-performance expectancy

24. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) • Blockages between effort and performance (cont.) • Organizational blockages • Resources • Training • Conflict • Organizational design • Can increase or decrease the effort-performance expectancy

25. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Individual blockages Performance Effort Outcomes Organizational blockages Effect of blockages: view as flows through a pipeline

26. Expectancy Theory (Cont.) Expanded ExpectancyTheory Model Individualblockages Extrinsicoutcomes Effort Performance Intrinsicoutcomes Organizationalblockages Text book Figure 8.2

27. Equity Theory • Focuses on exchange relationships • Perception of equitable or inequitable exchange • Exchange relationships: employer-employee, members of a team • Some criticism of underlying research • Discussion of elements most useful to managers • Balance the ratios of inputs to outcomes in exchange relationships

28. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Inputs • Characteristics and behaviors the person brings to the exchange relationship • Training, education, age, gender, ethnicity • Level of effort and performance • Person defines the relevant or important inputs • Possible basis of conflict in employer-employee exchange

29. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Outputs • What the person gets from the exchange relationship • Positive outcomes: pay, fringe benefits, competent supervision, friendly coworkers • Negative outcomes: close, controlling supervision; monotonous job • Person decides positive and negative character of outcomes

30. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Compare ratio of outcomes to inputs to perceived ratio of another person or group • Can also compare to • Similar ratios in the past • Standard of fairness • Terms • Person: individual making the comparison • Other: object of comparison

31. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Equity: ratios roughly balance • Person’s perception of equal ratios • Example: performance and rewards of self and coworker

32. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Inequity: unequal ratios • Negative inequity: underpayment • Positive inequity: overpayment • Amount of inequity: proportional to the size of perceived discrepancy in the ratios • Point of inequity experience is higher for positive inequity than negative inequity • Attribute some amount of overpayment to "good fortune” or • a just reward for high levels of effort in the past

33. Equity Theory (Cont.) A state of equity Person Other Outcomes Inputs Outcomes Inputs =

34. Equity Theory (Cont.) Negative inequity (“underpayment”) Person Other Outcomes Inputs Outcomes Inputs <

35. Equity Theory (Cont.) Positive inequity (“overpayment”) Person Other Outcomes Inputs Outcomes Inputs >

36. Equity Theory (Cont.) Tensionwithin the individual Motivationto reducetension Perceivedinequity Responses Responses to inequity

37. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Responses to inequity • Change inputs • Negative inequity: reduce effort or quality of work • Positive inequity: increase effort or quality of work • Change outcomes: ask for increase in pay or status symbols, such as larger office • Cognitively distort own inputs and outcomes • Negative inequity: reduce perceived importance of job • Positive inequity: increase perceived responsibility in job

38. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Responses to inequity • Withdrawal • Permanent: leave organization • Temporary: increased absences • Acting on other: an unfortunately violent possibility • Cognitively distort inputs and outcomes of other: overpaid; see more importance in other’s task • Change reference groups: shift comparison other to someone else

39. Equity Theory (Cont.) • Equity sensitivity • Equity sensitives: react as predicted by equity theory • Benevolents: accept negative inequity • Entitleds: accept positive inequity with no feelings of guilt

40. Expectancy Theory andEquity Theory Combined Perception ofequitableoutcomes Individualblockages Extrinsicoutcomes Effort Performance Satisfaction Organizationalblockages Intrinsicoutcomes

41. Guidelines Suggested by Expectancy and Equity Theory • Tie rewards to performance • Preferably tie them to performance close in time • Use valued rewards (valence) • Watch equity and fairness of reward distribution • Incentive: looks to the future • Reward: looks to the past

42. Goal Setting Theory “Goals that are specific, challenging, reachable, and accepted by a person lead to higher performance than goals that are “fuzzy,” unchallenging, not reachable, or not accepted (p. 142).” • Goal specificity: what, how much, when • Acceptance of goal important, but how one gets acceptance is not • Participation in goal setting increases information about how to reach goal

43. Goal Setting Theory (Cont.) • Performance feedback and some rewards improve performance • Goals are dynamic not static • Provide training and resources to help people reach goals

44. Behavior Modification • Differs from expectancy and equity theory because it does not use cognitive processes • Focuses only on observable behavior • Assumptions: • People go toward positive outcomes • People avoid negative outcomes

45. Behavior Modification (Cont.) • Principles • Contingent reinforcement: consequence has strongest effect when delivered after desired behavior occurs • Immediate reinforcement: consequence has strongest effect if delivered immediately after behavior occurs • Reinforcement size: large consequences have stronger effects than small ones • Reinforcement deprivation: longer a person is deprived of a consequence, the stronger its effect on behavior

46. Behavior Modification (Cont.) • Approaches to affecting behavior • Managers try to shape behavior by applying or withdrawing consequences • Positive consequences • Negative consequences • Four approaches • Positive reinforcement • Punishment • Extinction • Negative reinforcement

47. Behavior Modification (Cont.) • Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) • Positive reinforcement • Applies a positive event to increase the frequency or strength of desirable behavior • Example: praise, recognition, sales commissions • Increases the likelihood the person will repeat the behavior in the future

48. Behavior Modification (Cont.) • Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) • Punishment • Applies a negative event to decrease the frequency of undesirable behavior • Reprimand • Time off without pay • Punishment stops behavior but does not change its direction

49. Behavior Modification (Cont.) • Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) • Extinction: withdraws a positive consequence to decrease frequency of undesirable behavior • Punishment and extinction have the same target--undesirable behavior • Differ sharply in other respects • Punishment applies a negative event to a behavior; extinction withdraws a positive event Disruptive staff member in a meeting. Encourage otherstaff members to not laugh at the disruptive member’s behavior.

50. Behavior Modification (Cont.) • Approaches to affecting behavior (cont.) • Negative reinforcement • Increases frequency of desirable behavior by withdrawing a negative event • Person tries to escape from or avoid a negative event Supervisor scolds a person for being late for work.Person "escapes" from the negative event by showingup for work on time in the future.