Women & Men in Management

1. Women & Men in Management Chapter 3 – Becoming Women and Men

2. Sex Differences • Research Methods • Vote counting • Used in early reviews of studies in sex differences • Simple tally • Meta-analysis • Commonly used today • Statistical, quantitative methods • Yields more complex and often different results than vote counting does

3. Children’s Interests & Activities • Preference in toys • Boys • Action figures, blocks, guns and swords, trucks, sports collectibles, construction toys • Emphatic masculinity: Hasbro’s G.I. Joe line • Girls • Dolls, dollhouses, jewelry, pretend kitchen, tea sets, play houses • Emphatic femininity: Mattel’s Barbie

4. Children’s Interests & Activities • Play style • Boys • Physically aggressive, fighting/mock fighting • Girls • Reading, calmer/more domestic activities • Digital Divide • Boys • View computers as a way to achieve mastery • Participate in virtual video games • Girls • View computers as a way to accomplish tasks • Writing papers and social communication

5. Children’s Interests & Activities • Household Chores • Boys • Typically do more outdoor tasks • Are often paid for their chores • Girls • Typically do indoor chores such as caretaking, cleaning, and food preparation • Chores are usually done unpaid

6. Children’s Interests & Activities • Paid Labor • Boys • Lawn mowers, busboys, manual laborers • Girls • Babysitters, waitresses, food counter workers • Switching interests • Girls can more easily show interest in boy-related activities than boys may show interest in girl-related activities

7. Adults’ Social Behavior • Aggression • Males • Typically exhibit more physical aggression that produces pain than females do • Females • Usually engage in more verbal and indirect aggression • A coping mechanism to being less physically aggressive than males • Altruism • Males and females help others in areas in which they feel the most competent • Men offer heroic or chivalrous help, while women offer nurturing or caring help

8. Nonverbal Communication • Skills: • Express oneself using the face, body, and voice • Assess the meaning of nonverbal cues from others • Recall having met or seen people • Females demonstrate higher nonverbal skills • Possibly due to being in weaker or lower status positions than males, and so they must monitor other’s reactions to themselves

9. Gender Stereotypes • Broverman study • Competence vs. Warmth • Why are gender stereotypes so stable? • Self-fulfilling prophecy • Learning at a young age  they become fixed • Help people categorize themselves and others • When may they change? • In the face of evidence of changing social roles • Example: Stereotypes of men are more static, because men have experienced less social change than women

10. Gender Identity • Sandra Bem • Challenged the assumption that masculinity and femininity were completely opposite (1970s) • Defined the two traits as independent dimensions • Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) • Measured beliefs about oneself in relation to traditional concepts of masculinity and femininity

11. New Terms: BSRI • Interdependent self-construal • People of importance are included in your personal representation (more feminine) • Independent self-construal • Others are seen as separate and distinct from yourself (more masculine) • Psychological androgynous • A gender identity with high amounts of both masculinity and femininity

12. Gender Identity • So what is gender identity? • Beliefs about the extent to which one possesses masculine traits and the extent to which one possesses feminine traits • Beliefs about oneself in social relationships • The debate on androgyny: different views • Conformity with gender stereotypes • Break from stereotypes, pursue androgyny • There should be no ideal gendered behavior, be yourself instead of living up to a standard

13. Sexism • Sexism: prejudice displayed toward members of one sex • Hostile sexism • Benevolent sexism • What are the implications of each type of sexism?

14. The Global Perspective • Hostile and benevolent sexism toward women • Men scored much higher in hostile sexism • Women rejected hostile sexism overall, but often accept benevolent sexism • Hostile and benevolent sexism toward men • Women score higher than men on hostile sexism • Women score lower than men on benevolent sexism

15. Sexism in the Times • Old-fashioned sexism • Blatant • Associated with endorsement of traditional gender roles in the workplace • Differential treatment of women and men • Modern sexism • Denial of existence of sex discrimination • Antagonism toward women’s demands of discontinuing alleged sex discrimination • Lack of support for programs designed to help women in the workplace

16. Racism in the Times • Old-fashioned racism • Overt expressions of hostility and antagonism toward another race • Modern racism (“aversive” or “symbolic”) • More subtle • Endorses racial equality and avoids obvious acts of discrimination to maintain a fair and just self-image • Denies the existence of racial discrimination • Displays acts of “microaggression” • Avoidance, closed communication, failure to help

17. Nature and Nurture • Why do sex differences occur? • Biological forces (nature) • Sex differences in adults and children are innate • The view on evolutionary processes • Proven biological sex differences come from genes, hormone levels, nerve cell activity, and brain structure • Social-environmental forces (nurture) • Family, peers, media, schools, employers, and pressures to conform cause sex differences • No agreement has been made, yet both have some effect

18. Gender Socialization: Parents • How do parents affect gender socialization? • Provide opportunity for imitation and reinforcement • Children more often imitate same-sex models • Emphasizing gender stereotypes in household chores and play activities • In their beliefs about gender stereotypes and roles • Employment and workplace experiences • The effects of maternal employment: more prevalent in daughters than sons

19. Gender Socialization: Schools • How do schools affect gender socialization? • Adult role models in the school • Sex segregation of positions • Graduation rates and test scores show that school systems are successful in educating males and females • Differences: • Girls get better grades than boys across the board • Females students tend to be more disciplined and respectful of rules and regulations • Boys receive more classroom attention

20. Gender Socialization: Mass Media • How does the mass media affect gender socialization? • Television • Provides a view of the outside world and affects perceptions of social reality • Educational programming may have positive effects • Characterized by mental and physical passivity • Teaches children behavior, gender stereotypes, and racial/ethnic portrayals • Commercials and products • Displays diversity

21. Limitations of Gender Stereotypes • Stereotyping causes: • An increase of prejudice and discrimination • Overgeneralization • A stereotype rarely applies to all members of a group • An implication that differences between members of different groups are a result of their group membership

22. Limitations of Gender Roles • Female gender role encourages • Dependence and surrender of control • Self-awareness • Expression of feelings • Male gender role encourages • Aggressiveness and competitiveness • Suppression of feelings and dominance • Mortality and health statistics • Women are more likely to experience frequent, treatable illnesses • Men are more likely to experience more life-threatening diseases and permanent disability

23. Chapter 3 Terms • Sex differences • Gender differences • Gender stereotypes • Gender roles • Vote counting • Meta-Analysis • Emphatic masculinity • Emphatic femininity • Aggression • Altruism • Nonverbal communications • Competent • Warm • Masculine • Feminine • Gender identity • Interdependent self-construal • Independent self-construal • Psychological androgyny • Sexism • Hostile sexism • Benevolent sexism • Old-fashioned sexism • Modern sexism • Old-fashioned racism • Modern racism • Biological forces • Evolutionary processes • Social-environmental forces • Maternal employment • Paternal employment • Reflected appraisals model of self-esteem • Competencies model of self-esteem