Learning

1. Learning What Is It? How Do We Study It? How Do Our Biology and The Environment Contribute to Learning?

2. What is Learning? • Relatively enduring change in behaviour that results from experience. • Focus of psychologists tends to be on observable, measurable behaviour. • Avoids reference to internal states such as emotions, although modern learning theorists do consider changes in cognitions. • Like memory, it refers to a long-lasting change following environmental exposure.

3. Evolution of Learning Theories • Early methodology: Introspection, dream analysis, free association. • Early theories: Based on concept of unconscious mental processes driving behaviour (Freud’s influence). • 20th Century: • Behaviorism: Only observable behaviour can be studied (Watson’s influence in early 20th century). Learning is the result of conditioning. • Classical and operant conditioning (Pavlov, Skinner). • Effect of observing others on learning (Bandura). • Currently: Influences of environment, biology, and cognition on learning.

4. Classical Conditioning Passive Learning

5. Classical Conditioning • Study of the salivary reflex in dogs led to his principles of classical conditioning. Based on the work of physiologist Ivan Pavlov in the late 1800s.

6. Classical Conditioning • Classical conditioning is based on the idea that associations are formed between two stimuli, one of which elicits a reflex response such as salivation, eye blinks, startle, fear, etc. • There is an excellent description of Pavlov’s work, written in 1909 by Robert Yerkesand Segius Morgulis of Yale university. It was collected by Christopher Green of York University and is available at the following website. http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/pavlov.htm

7. Forming the AssociationAs A Research Protocol Unconditioned Stimulus US food loud noise Unconditioned Response UR salivation startle, fear These are reflex responses.

8. Forming the Association Unconditioned Stimulus US food loud noise Unconditioned Response CS salivation startle, fear Neutral Stimulus sound, light Varied Responses

9. Unconditioned Stimulus US food loud noise Unconditioned Response UR salivation startle Neutral Stimulus sound In the lab these pairings are called reinforced trials. They lead to acquisitionof the association, or conditioning.

10. After Acquisition Unconditioned Response UR salivation Unconditioned Stimulus US food Conditioned Response CR salivation Conditioned Stimulus CS sound, light The neutral stimulus is now called the Conditioned Stimulus because it now elicits a response that is similar to the UR. That response is now called the Conditioned Response.

11. What Affects the Association? • Laws of Association (from 19th century philosophers): • Similarity of US and CS. • Contiguity of US and CS. • Frequency of pairings. • Biological Preparedness • Cognitions: • Expectedness of US (Rescorla-Wagner model): The more surprising the US, the more conditioning (learning) occurs. • Context of learning.

12. Unlearning the Association • What happens when the CS is no longer paired with the US? • The association weakens and gradually disappears. It is said to extinguish. This is called extinction.

13. Expanding the Association • What happens if a stimulus similar to the CS appears, e.g., an reddish-orange light rather than a red one? • The organism may respond, although probably less reliably. • This is called stimulus generalization. The organism has generalized the response to the similar stimulus.

14. Refining the Association • If an organism can learn to generalize the association, can the animal also refine it? • Can the organism learn to discriminate one stimulus from another and learn to respond only to one, e.g., to discriminate the reddish-orange light from the red one? YES

15. Refining the Association • If an organism produces the response to one stimulus and does not produce it for another, we call this stimulus discrimination.

16. Classical Conditioning Outside the Lab • The classical conditioning perspective can be used to explain, at least in part: • Phobias • Addictions • Note that such behaviour includes an emotional component (fear, anxiety, relief, pleasure, etc.). • These are like reflex responses—automatic, and not within our immediate control. • Cues in the environment become conditioned to elicit the conditioned response.

17. A Real Life Example A True Case Study

18. A Real Life ExampleA Case Study: Part 1 • Two-year old Jane developed the habit of the felt under pad for the family rug. As she grew older she also ate the fuzz from wool blankets, and knitting wool). • When asked why she did it, Jane said it felt good in her mouth. • Unfortunately, sometimes she ate so much that it blocked her bowel and actually threatened her life.

19. A Case Study: Part 2 • Each time her mother saw her doing this, she would quickly distract her and play with her for a while. • As Jane grew older, the behaviour generalized to eating the filter tips of cigarettes that she picked up from the ground. • Finally, when she started school, on the very first day, Jane actually ate the new red wool socks that her grandmother had knitted for her first day at school right off her feet!

20. A Case Study: Part 3 • Needless to say, her parents were extremely concerned. This terrible habit was risking their child’s life through either a bowel blockage or serious infection. • Having tried everything that they could think of with no effect (distraction, punishment, reward for stopping, consulting the family physician) they decided that a psychologist or psychiatrist might help.

21. A Case Study: Part 4 • After considerable testing and interviewing, the psychiatrist explained that she thought that Jane found eating wool rewarding because it drew her mother’s attention away from the baby. That felt really good to Jane because she was probably feeling displaced by her baby brother. • Once the behaviour was established, it became so pleasurable that it rewarded itself. • In addition, it then was also comforting in anxiety producing situations, such as the first day at school.

22. A Case Study:Classical Conditioning Explanation • What follows is an explanation in classical conditioning terms. Later we’ll see one in operant conditioning terms. • How would you advise the parents to treat Jane, based on this explanation.

23. Case Study: Classical Conditioning Forming the Association US Attention from mom. UR following the US now becomes CR following Neutral Stimulus. The Neutral Stimulus is now called the CS. Feel good all over. Neutral Stimulus, now CS Feel of rug felt in mouth. Jane acquires an association between mom’s attention and feel of rug felt. Both now make her feel good.

24. Case Study: Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization • Jane starts to eat cigarette filter tips, fluff from wool blankets, knitting wool. • These feel similar in her mouth and become associated with the feel of the rug felt—they make her feel good. • The stimulus has generalized from rug felt to similar items: Filter tips, fluff, knitting wool.

25. Case Study: Classical Conditioning Stimulus Discrimination • Jane refuses to put cotton batten in her mouth. Says it feels ‘awful’. • Jane is now discriminating between stimuli—eats wool, won’t eat cotton.

26. Case Study: Classical Conditioning Based on this explanation, what would you recommend to change Jane’s undesirable behaviour?

27. In spite of their concerns, the parents gradually learn to ignore incidents of wool eating. They also remove as much wool, and similar items from the environment. Child’s life becomes more active and interesting—school, larger circle of friends. There are fewer opportunities for wool eating and it is no longer rewarded by mom’s attention. The habit slowly extinguishes. Case Study: Classical Conditioning Extinction. At Last!

28. Classical Conditioning Why would advertisers use pictures of attractive females to advertise their products, particularly products that would be purchased by men?

29. Why do beer and liquor ads and commercials feature beautiful women, images of adventure, and people having fun or playing sports? Is there something in these pictures that makes you feel good? Will you associate that feeling with the product?

30. Why does the sound of the can opener make the dog run for the kitchen?

31. Classical Conditioning • Where else might we see classical conditioning at work in our environment? • Why do grocery stores have bake shops that let the smell of baking waft over the whole store? • How do we acquire tastes for unpleasant-tasting, often bitter foods, e.g., olives, coffee, dill pickles, martinis, etc.? • Why would a child that is abused at home react badly to a teacher who looks like her father? • How do we develop positive or negative reactions to certain music, people, social activities, types of clothes, etc. that did not affect us at first?

32. Classical Conditioning • Considered passive learning because: • The learner is not an active participant in the learning. • Associations are formed without the conscious awareness of the learner. • Explains the attachment of emotional responses to situations where one would not necessarily expect an emotional response.

33. One More Example • L’il Albert • John Watson’s application of Pavlov’s principles. • The first known example of a conditioned phobia. • http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/emotion.htm provides a copy of Watson and Rayner’s (1920) description of their conditioning of Albert. Note the very careful procedure and notes as they tried to be sure that the learned fear was associated with just the rabbit, and then extended to other furry items.