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Memory

Memory. Chapter 9. The Information-Processing Model. Information Processing Model. Encoding - getting information into the memory system Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage.

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Memory

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  1. Memory Chapter 9

  2. The Information-Processing Model

  3. Information Processing Model • Encoding - getting information into the memory system • Storage - the retaining of encoded information over time • Retrieval - getting encoded information out of memory storage

  4. Encoding: Automatic and Effortful Processing

  5. Automatic Processing • The unconscious encoding of some information without effort • Usually information on space, time and frequency

  6. Effortful Processing • Encoding that requires attention and a conscious deliberate effort • The best processing is through rehearsal or practice.

  7. Rehearsal • The conscious repetition of information in order to encode it • The more time spent on rehearsal, the more information one tends to remember.

  8. Rehearsal and Retention(From Baddeley, 1982)

  9. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) • German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables • Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”

  10. Overlearning • Continuing to rehearse after the point the information has been learned • Rehearsing past the point of mastery • Helps ensure information will be available even under stress

  11. Encoding:Serial Position Effect

  12. Try to memorize the following list • DUN • OPT • WIV • CAK • QOP • AXT • PIF • RAL • ULN • HEJ

  13. Serial Position Effect • The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list • Primacy effect – the ability to recall information near the beginning of a list • Recency effect – the ability to recall information near the end of a list

  14. Primacy/Recency Effect(From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

  15. Encoding:Spacing Effect

  16. Spacing Effect • The tendency for distributed practice to yield better retention than is achieved through massed practice

  17. Distributed Practice • Spreading rehearsal out in several sessions separated by period of time • Usually enhances the recalling of the information

  18. Massed Practice • Putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming) • Not as effective as distributed practice

  19. Encoding:Encoding Meaning

  20. Semantic Encoding • The encoding of meaning • Encoding information that is meaningful enhances recall

  21. Semantic Encoding(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

  22. Acoustic Encoding • Encoding information based on the sounds of the information

  23. Acoustic Encoding(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

  24. Visual Encoding • Encoding information based on the images of the information

  25. Visual Encoding(From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

  26. Self-Reference Effect • The enhanced semantic encoding of information that is personally relevant • Making information meaningful to a person by making it relevant to one’s life

  27. Encoding:Mnemonic Devices

  28. Mnemonic Device • A memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts • “Every good boy does fine” to remember the notes on the lines of the scale • “ROY G. BIV” as a way to remember the colors of the rainbow. Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet.

  29. Method of Loci • A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to be remembered with imaginary places

  30. Peg-Word System • A mnemonic device in which the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized • Goal is to visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

  31. Peg Word System

  32. Encoding:Organizing Information

  33. Chunking • Organizing information into meaningful units • More information can be encoded if organized into meaningful chunks.

  34. Storage

  35. Three Storage Systems • Three distinct storage systems : • Sensory Memory • Short-Term Memory (includes Working Memory) • Long-Term Memory

  36. Storage:Sensory Memory

  37. Sensory Memory • The brief, initial coding of sensory information in the memory system • Iconic store – visual information • Echoic store – sound information • Information held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

  38. Storage:Short-Term Memory

  39. Short-Term Memory • Conscious, activated memory which holds information briefly before it is stored or forgotten • Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information • Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed • Also called “working memory”

  40. Storage:Long-Term Memory

  41. Long-Term Memory • The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system • Holds memories without conscious effort

  42. Flashbulb Memory • A vivid, clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event • Can be personal memories or centered around a shared event

  43. Storage:Memory and the Brain

  44. Long-Term Potentiation • An increase in a synapse’s firing efficiency • Believed to be the neural basis of learning and memory

  45. Storage:Explicit and Implicit Memories

  46. Explicit Memory • Memory of facts and experiences that one must consciously retrieve and declare • Processed through the hippocampus

  47. Explicit Memories

  48. Explicit Memories

  49. Implicit Memory • Memory of skills and procedures that are retrieved without conscious recollection • Processed through the cerebellum

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