Chapter 5

1. Chapter 5 Learning

2. Definition of Learning • Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice

3. Classical Conditioning • Definition of Classical Conditioning • Learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex • Elements of Classical Conditioning • Unconditioned Stimulus • A naturally occurring stimulus that leads to an involuntary response • Unconditioned Response • An involuntary response to a naturally occurring or unconditioned stimulus • Conditioned Stimulus • Stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus • Neutral Stimulus • Stimulus that has no effect on the desired response • Conditioned Response • Learned reflex response to a conditioned stimulus

4. Pavlov’s Experiment • - Brief Movie • Figure 5.1 on page 173

5. Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning • Pairing of CS and UCS • The CS must come before the UCS (had Pavlov rang the bell after the dogs salivated they would not have become conditioned) • The CS and UCS must come very close together in time (Pavlov tried to stretch the time and saw no association) • The neutral stimulus must be paired with the UCS several times, often many times, before conditioning can take place • The CS is usually some stimulus that is distinctive or stands out from other competing stimuli. The bell was not a sound that was normally present in the laboratory and was distinct.

6. Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalization- the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response • Stimulus Discrimination- the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned • Stimulus Extinction- the disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning) • Spontaneous Recovery- the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred

7. Higher Order Conditioning • Insert image from p. 175

8. Other conditioning • Conditioned Emotional Responses • Emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person • Vicarious conditioning- classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Conditioned taste aversion Biological preparedness- referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations such as taste and nausea with only one or few pairings due to the survival value of learning

9. Why does Classical Conditioning Work • Stimulus substitution- original theory in which Pavlov stated that classical conditioning occurred because the conditioned stimulus became a substitute for the unconditioned stimulus by being paired closely together • Robert Rescorla found that the CS had to provide some information about the coming UCS in order to achieve conditioning • Rats received shock prior to tone stopping responded to tone with fear • Rats that received shock only after tone stopped responded to stopping of the tone with fear

10. Operant Conditioning • Definition- The learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses • Thorndike’s Puzzle Box • B.F. Skinner

11. Reinforcement Reinforcement- any event or stimulus that when following a response increases the probability that the response will occur again • Primary reinforcers- a reinforce that satisfies a basic need; any reinforce that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch; candy is an example • Secondary reinforcers- any reinforce that becomes reinforcing after being paired with primary reinforce, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.

12. Reinforcement Cont. • Positive reinforcement- the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experiencing of pleasurable stimulus • Negative reinforcement- the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

13. Other Operant Concepts Shaping-the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior; accomplished by successive approximations • Successive approximations- small steps in behavior, one after the other, that lead to a particular goal behavior; (training a dog to jump through a hoop) • Discriminative stimulus- any stimulus such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that provides the organism with a cue for making a certain response in order to obtain reinforcement

14. Schedules of Reinforcement • Partial reinforcement effect- the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction (dog treats only sometimes after the dog shakes) • Continuous reinforcement- the reinforcement of each and every correct response (dog treats after every time the dog shakes)

15. Schedules of Reinforcement (Ratio) • Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement- schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same (3 correct responses equal a star) • Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement-schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different each trial or event (3 correct equals a star, then 1 correct, then 5 correct, then 4 correct, then 2, etc) (slot machines are variable ratio)

16. Schedules of Reinforcement (interval) Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement-schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same (you must do 20 minutes of homework and then you get a cookie) • Variable interval schedule of reinforcement- schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event (if rat pushes lever once within a ten minute window, he might get a pellet at 2 minutes, then at 5 minutes, then at 3 minutes, etc)

17. Punishment any event or object that when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again • By Application-the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus (given a speeding ticket for speeding) • By removal-the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus (toy is taken away, losing your license for speeding)

18. Punishment • Problems • How to make punishment more effective • It should immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish • It should be consistent • Punishment of wrong behavior should be paired when possible with the right behavior

19. Applying Operant Conditioning • Behavior modification- the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior • Token economy- type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens • Applied behavior analysis (ABA)- modern term for a form of behavior modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired behavior or response • Biofeedback-using feedback about biological conditions to bring involuntary responses under voluntary control • Neurofeedback

20. Cognitive Learning Theory • Cognitive Learning Theory • Tolman’s Maze • Seligman’s Dogs • Kohler’s chimp

21. Observational Learning • Bandura and Bobo • Video Four Elements of Observational Learning • Attention • Memory • Imitation • Motivation