Focus: Egitto Moderno & Contemporaneo (Gennaro Gervasio)

1. Focus:Egitto Moderno & Contemporaneo(Gennaro Gervasio) Lezione 1:L’Ottocento

2. Aims of this module • 1. Introducing students to the history of Egypt between 1798 and today. • 2. Identifying the main historiographical trends, narratives, interpretations and analysing them critically. • 3. Identifying the ‘continuity/break’ relation among the different periods of Egyptian History.

3. Modern Egypt

5. The ‘Gunpowder Empires’ • Muslim Empires rule from the Mediterranean to the Bengal Sea. • Safavids in Iran (1502-1722): Promotion of an Iranian Identity through Shi’a and clashes with Ottomans • Moghuls/Mughals in Indian Subcontinent (1526-1857)

6. The Modern Middle East • Shaped by two main factors: • Historical Evolution of the States in the Area • European Aggression (Colonialism & Imperialism) Crediting the external intervention as the only factor is simply not correct and historically inaccurate(Question of Agency).

7. Some Basic Questions What is ‘Modern’? What makes a country ‘modern’? Are there different trajectories to ‘modernity’ (hadatha)? For most scholars, Modern Egypt begins in 1798 (Orientalist school) or 1805 (Nationalist School).

8. ‘Modern Egypt’ 1798-1805: French Expedition 1805-1882: The House of Mohammad ‘Ali 1882-1922: British Occupation 1922-1952: ‘Liberal Era’ 1952-2011: The ‘July’ Regime 2011- The Uprising and after

9. A Critical View We will study and critically analyse the main approaches to Egyptian history, illuminating merits and limits: 1. Orientalist and Neo-Orientalist. 2. Nationalist. Importance of studying ‘history from below’ (eg. Farmers’); and from the margins (eg. Women’s Movement). Dangers of ‘Official Histories’, and Elite approach.

10. Egypt in the 18th century -1 • ‘Chaos’ and ‘Anarchy’? • Vanishing Control of the Ottoman Empire. • Mamluks fighting for hegemony and autonomy. • ‘Ali Bey al-Kebir (ruled 1768/73) unifies most of Egypt, takes control of part of Sham and Arabia, declares autonomy from Istanbul, hires European advisers, negotiate with UK and Russia. Betrayed by his ally Muhammad bey Abul-Dhahab.

11. Egypt in the 18th century - 2 • 18th century saw the flourishing of Egyptian popular culture (literary production in ‘ammyya) & the birth of the ‘ahwa culture. • The question of inhitāt (decadence)

12. 1798: another Orientalist myth? • French expedition in Egypt 1798-1801 • Critique of this founding Orientalist myth (movements of tajdid [renewal] predate 1798) but • Legacies of French campaign: • Other Ottoman provinces claim autonomy • Show the path to other European Powers leading to Military aggression

13. Three years to change the Orient? • Origins of the Campaign: • Anti-Ottoman & Anti-UK • Self-representation: N. quotes the Prophet and the Qur’an. To end Mamluks’ tyranny

14. Shattered Expectations • Evidence shows that the French planned to stay • No Military resistance • Napoleon leaves in 1799 • Revolt in Cairo, and ‘Exemplary’ Punishment of the populace (incl ‘ulama’) • British Expedition (1801) • Ottoman-British force France to leave. • Chaos and possibilities

15. Some remarks 1. The Idea of ‘Decadence’ of pre 1798 Egypt: fact and Fiction Egypt in the 18th century was the richest Ottoman Province (trade; wheat; cotton; hajj). The Birth of a “new” Egypt in Europe (‘Egypt at the exposition”) Egypt becomes a theatre then an actor in the Euro-Mediterranean System

16. Egypt after the French France forced out by Ottoman/British forces Chaos and Competition for the control of Egypt British: no interest in colonising Egypt Ottomans: want to re-assert their control Albanian Contingent Mamluks (hated by urban population) ‘Politicization’ of the urban population

17. 1805: The other founding date • For many, ‘Modern Egypt’ begins with Muhammad ‘Ali (1805-1848). Wali of Egypt. • Reforms include: • Land reform & industrialisation. • Quasi-independence. • A modern army – active in Arabia, Sudan, Palestine and Syria. • His successors ruled Egypt until 1952. • The Founder of Modern Egypt?

18. Ruling Egypt (1811onw.) After the Liquidation the Mamluks (completed in 1812 Citadel Massacre and Sa’id), M. Ali’s main danger is the ‘Porte’ (the Sultan Selim) who wants to remove him from power in Egypt (Arabian Campaigns 1811-12, formal respect for Sultan’s authority, etc) Expedition in Arabia Necessity of consolidation of his rule beyond the precarious Albanian army.

19. Reforms:The Master of the Land Bringing the land under State control (French’s recommendations): abolition of iltizam and aradi al-usya (free tax land). Gradual Abolition of Waqf Land, and repression of ‘ulama and ashraf (‘Umar Makram) privileges. Bureaucratisation (‘Enframing’) of fellahin. No ownership on ‘their land’, plus corvees and conscription later. High taxation to raise funds for other reforms Modernisation (Canals, Artificial lakes etc)

20. A ‘Modern Army’ 1818 Ibrahim captures Sa’udi capital Dar’iyya for the Sultan. 1820 The Sudan (failed) expedition to found the army (disregard of Egyptians –except beduins- at the beginning) Recruitment of Upper Egyptians, then re-organisation of the army based on conscription (mostly fellahin abducted from their land and armed).

21. Costs of the Reforms Lower & Upper Egypt’s fellahin, Albanians etc revolt against conscription and taxes. New ‘nizami’ troops sent to repress the insurrection and succeed. More conscriptions and more military actions twds the Wahhabi-Sa’udis and Sudan. 1820s Greek Insurrection brings Egypt against European powers (Battle of Navarino, 1827)

22. Lessons from the Defeat Distance from Sultan’s adventurism Necessity of re-forming the officers by hiring new European instructors. Most institutions founded to assist the military, e. eg. Medical School and Hospital (later Qasr al’Ayni) by Clot Bey. First ‘Modern’ factories Egyptians students sent to Europe Further centralisation of the State and ‘enframing’ of fellahin (tazakir, ID), to prevent their flight to escape corvee, conscription, etc.

23. Birth of an elite The Pasha attracted more and more members of his family to Egypt to occupy key positions in the Army and the State (Turkish-Albanian bashawat). Elite not connected to the country. Returning students (mostly Egyptians) join the State bureaucracy (some becoming ‘bey’). Founding a Dynasty (1840-1846)

24. From Below ‘Enframing’ of millions in the countryside caused deep resentment against the ‘Pasha’ and his men. Uprooting of village economy and life Mining of Family Organisation ..and more!

25. The Pasha after 1841 In 1841 with a firman the Sultan named him ruler of Egypt for life, granting his male descendants hereditary rights. Was this a victory or a defeat? (London Conference 1840) Better relations with the Sultan and UK. Weakening the ‘monopoly over the land’ and the State, in favour of Turkish elite and also emerging Egyptian bureucrats. Army demobilized: quest for civilian jobs, and fellahin’s relief (Corvees to be performed locally).

26. The Pasha’s Legacy Radical Change within Ottoman and Mediterranean System. Egypt economically closer to Europe (cotton in Delta, and modernising mission, culture) Social Structure transformed (‘Turkish aristocracy’, Egyptianised with time), Egyptian ‘Francophile’ elite. Birth of a Strong, Centralised State Education: Government schools Alienation of the Fellah from the State (conscription, forced labor, displacement, etc)

27. Independence & Dependence 1848-1879 in sum: Growth of the State (and of the partly Egyptianised elite); Foreign Penetration (leading to economic control, then colonisation). Ibrahim, ‘Abbas, Sa‘id, Isma‘il

28. State Growth (in brief) Viceroys, as absolute rulers, needed to consolidate their power vis a vis the Sultan Viceroys needed to keep the bureaucracy built by M. ‘Ali. More money, and this is one of the causes of the making of the debt in favour of European Powers, and Banks.

29. Sa‘id & Isma‘il • Heavy Programme of Reform, ‘Modernisation’, Europeaization, Full Independance, Imperial Ambitions. • Integration of Egypt in the ‘world’ econnomy (in a subaltern position). • Cotton Boom (Crimean War & US Civil War 1860s) • Monoculture in the Delta • End to the State Monopoly

30. European Penetration • Consular Presence • Capitulations Regime, then Mixed Courts • Tax Exemption for Europeans • Banking: Creating the Debt • Ex: the Suez Canal • The Debt Cabinet and the end of Egyptian ‘independence’ in spite of becoming khedive (1877) • The Costs of ‘Europeization’ (Egypt is an appendix of Europe) • The Partial Egyptianization of the elite (army, aryaf)

31. ‘Orabi: Revolt or Revolution? • Egyptian and Arab Scholars call it ‘thawra’ even if failed, whilst Westerners prefer ‘Revolt’. • Extensive Civilian Involvement, Social Depth in spite of defeat (like 1848 in Europe)

32. The Road to Revolution 1876: Bankruptcy forced Isma’il to accept the Public Debt Commission (made of UK/FRA) and then the ‘Dual Control’. 1878 ‘European Cabinet’ led by Nubar Pasha. By 1880, British interests prevailing over French (80% Egypt Exports, 44% Imports), 80% of Canal Traffic was British. Supremacy over Cotton Market, almost 100,000 European settled, bureaucrats and landowners, with no or light taxation. Bankrupt in the Army at the expense of low rank Egyptians

33. The Road to the Revolution 2 1879 Army demands vs. Europeans’ control, Demands a constitution (like short lived Ottoman Mejelle), and a proper elected Assembly. European ‘Liberal Democracies’ depose Isma’il and install Tawfiq who is against constitutionalism and tries autocratic rule relying on Turkish elite and Egyptian landowners. Ryad Basha (PM) autocratic but ‘enlightened’ rule. Reduces countryside taxation/corvées, 2 Egyptians on the Cabinet

34. The Role of the Press • 1828 al-Waqa’i al-Misriyya (Official Gazette) • 1876. al-Ahram (Alexandria): Taqla Brothers • Also Satyre (Abu Naddara) Yaqub Sannu’. • Role of Levantine (Shawam) Christians (Ishaq), Copts (Watan 1877), shaykh al-Afghani and M. ‘Abduh. • Press vs Ryad

35. From the Army Ryad not a soldier, left the army with Tawfiq and his Turkish Minister Army: Institution with stronger Turkish supremacy over indigenous. Language, Fellahin career blocked. Mounting Rage from Egyptians ‘Orabi born cls to Zagazig (fallah). Sa’id opened up the army to fallahin, but Isma’il reinforced Turkish hegemony. Ethiopian Campaign makes him anti-Turkish and politicized. 1880: Egyptians cannot serve more than 4 yrs Jan 1881- ‘Urabi and two fellows protest and Al-Barudi becomes new Minister of War

36. The Uprising After the French occupation of Tunis, Officers march on ‘Abdin palace asking the dismissal of Ryad and anti-indigenous policies in the Army (sept. 1881). Alliance of indigenous officers, landed notables, a minority of Turks and the Press. Army Reform and ‘Orabi’s rising star (Under-secretary of war 1882) Sharif cabinet made of Turks but with many Egyptians (and Syrians) in important positions

37. ‘Egypt for the Egyptians’ New Cabinet with ‘Orabi and another fellah officer. Purge of Turks from the Army Fall out with Syrian Press (too ‘moderate’) UK reaction, and the khedivé. Army faithful to ‘Orabi. Alexandria Riot (June 1882) Vs Europeans. Tawfiq’s and ‘Orabi’s Resistence. Part of ‘political and civil society’ sides with ‘Orabi vs Tawfiq (religious authorities’, officers, etc)

38. Breaking of the Front British- French – The Sultan vs the Revolution Alexandria vs Cairo Kafr al-Dawwar battle: diversive Tall al-Kabir defeat; ‘Orabi surrenders to spare the sacking of Cairo. ‘Urabi and ‘Urabist leaders life spared and sent to Ceylon into exile. 1882-3 Mass trials and General Amnesty but persistence of ‘Orabist spirit in the army and intelligentsija.

39. Reasons for Defeat Colonial Intervention (Power Unbalance) Internal Contradiction b/w coalition’s members: At the end Turkish elite, high ‘ulama’, rich landlords, merchants and most Syrians backed the khedive: whilst indigenous army officers, many ‘umda, mid ‘ulama stayed with ‘Orabi. Class Contradictions: No attempt of a social revolution from below in the countryside. Fallahin, many women sided with ‘Orabi. M. ‘Ali’s dynasty survives but basically powwerless.

40. 1882: Facts and faction After the 1882 ‘Urabi’s defeat, Egypt is controlled by the British, represented by a governor (the resident) who rules de facto. Officially, Egypt is still part of the Ottoman Empire and has a quasi-independent khedive (the disgraced Tawfiq Basha).

41. For the British Empire • 1882 a watershed • Lord Cromer (Consul General til 1907): Long Term Occupation vs London. • Tawfiq under control and key posts in the Cabinet to British. • Debt Control but with some concession. • Beginning of some anti British resistance within the elite. • European Immigration and further control of the economy

42. Cromer’s Egypt • Some historians recognise Cromer reformed Egypt in a good way. But it was at the worst when he arrived. • Racist Ideology (Egyptians are children) • Serving UK supreme interests • Administration and Land. More efficient but also more controlled by foreigners and bashawat. • Partial education reform. • Army after ‘Orabi. • Economic Reform needs Political Reform

43. Intellectual Reaction: 1. Salafiyya • Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (Iranian, 1838-97) • Muhammad ‘Abduh (Egyptian, 1849-1905) Are considered the fathers of Islamic Reformism (Islahiyya): Looking back into Islamic Heritage to Rediscover its Modernity. Attempt to Adapt Islam to the Modern World. Al-Afghani: Pan-Islamism ‘Abduh: Pro-’Orabi and nationalist. Accepts the Nation State (Mufti of Egypt). Inspires Modernists (Rashid Rida)…

44. 2. Anti-UK ‘Movement’ 1892: Khedive ‘Abbas II Hilmi Post ‘Urabi intellectual nationalism. Circles (‘hizb’ but very elitist) with different affiliation: Mustafa Kamil, one of the fathers of Egyptian nationalism. Al-Liwa’, then National Party (1907). After Dinshawai (1906) and Cromer’s departure, three ‘parties’ are established: Hizb al-Watani (M. Kamil: Egyptian Territorial Iindependence) – Muhammad Farid after Kamil’s death in 1908. Hizb al-Umma (Ahmad Lutfi al-Sayyid): less radical vs UK Hizb al-Islah (‘Ali Yusuf): Ottoman Links vs UK

45. ‘Non Print’ Nationalism The perils of an ‘elite approach’ Phonograph 1904 Taqatiq Zajal Entertainment Nationalistic Songs: Sayyed Darwish (1892-1923)

46. 1914: A Defining Moment With UK in war against Ottomans, the fiction cannot go on. ‘Abbas sides with Istanbul and the British depose him, declaring Egypt a Sultanate under British Protectorate (Sultan Husayn Kamil). Egypt used as a base for military and civlians from British Empire. Forced Conscription and Labour Incompetence of UK administrators. Intensive cotton causes food shortage National Movement: Neither Ottoman, nor British. British vague promise for self-determination in change of siding with Allied Troops vs Ottomans

47. Qualche conclusione Egitto: primo nella ‘modernizzazione’: gioie e dolori di uno ‘stato moderno’ in periferia. State-building vs. Nation-building Elite importata vs elite indigena Comunità straniere (settlers) non sempre ancelle del colonialismo. I pericoli di una visione ultra-nazionalista e Vetero o neo-orientalista.

48. The significance of dates 1798-1882: Importance and Limits, Continuities & Ruptures. Demography: Growth of population but urban population grew only from 8 to 10% Whose history? Whose nation? European Population (around 100,000 at the beginning of UK occupation). Elite making and change

49. Criticizing the Paradigm What is Modern? Who pays for Egypt’s Modernity? Centralized State & Bureaucracy Army Education Land and its Discontents People’s (Forced) Movements

50. From Above/From Below The Making of a New Elite Egyptians, Egyptianised and Foreigners Isma’il: An Illuminated Autocrat? Independence a\nd Subalternity Which Nahda Misriyya? 1882: The End and the Beginning (Occupation and 1st Strike in Port Said) Some Final Reflections