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Explore the impact of Greco-Roman civilization on ancient Rome and the formation of the Roman Republic. Learn about the culture, government, and laws of this influential ancient civilization.
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Ancient Rome Ancient Civilizations
Ancient Rome • They borrowed heavily from Greek culture after it conquered Greece • To the Romans, Greek art, literature, philosophy and scientific genius represented cultural achievement • The blending of Greek and Roman tradition produced what is known as the Greco-Roman civilization
Ancient Rome Greco-Roman civilization is also referred to Western civilization, but it also impacted other civilizations
The Land and Peoples of Italy • Italy is a peninsula about 750 miles long north to south • The Apennine Mountains run down the middle • Ideal for farming meaning large population • Rome was located inland with easy access to the sea • It’s position on the Mediterranean made a natural barrier was a stopping point for trade and travel
The Land and Peoples of Italy • Indo-European peoples moved into Italy from about 1500 to 1000 B.C. • One group was the Latins in the region of Latium. • They spoke Latin, an Indo-European language • After 800 B.C., Greeks and Etruscans moved into Italy • The Greeks passed on their alphabet and artistic models for sculpture, architecture, and literature • The Etruscans had more impact on early Rome’s development • After 650 B.C. they controlled most of Rome and Latium • The Etruscans turned Rome from a village into a city and gave the Romans their mode of dress—the toga and short cloak
The Roman Republic • Early Rome was ruled by Etruscan kings • 509 B.C.- the Romans overthrew the last Etruscan king and established a republic • Republic- the leader is not a king and certain citizens have the right to vote and elect leaders. Think representative democracy! • 264 B.C.- Rome had defeated the other groups of people and now controlled almost all of Italy • The Romans devised the Roman Confederation • Some people—especially the Latins—had full Roman citizenship • Other groups were allies who controlled their local affairs but gave soldiers to Rome. Such people could become Roman citizens
The Roman Republic • Romans believed that their success was due to three virtues: duty, courage, and discipline • The Early Romans were: • Good diplomats who used extended Roman citizenship and allowing states to run their own affairs • Skilled, persistent soldiers and brilliant strategists • They built towns throughout conquered Italy and connected them with roads, allowing soldiers to be deployed quickly • In law and politics the Romans were practical and created institutions that responded effectively to problems
The Roman State • The Romans distrusted kingship because of their experience with the Etruscan kings • They built a different form of government- a republic • Early Rome was divided into two groups, the patricians and the plebeians • Patricians- The large landowners who formed Rome’s ruling class and could be elected to political office (Think upper class) • Plebeians- Smaller landowning farmers, craftspeople, and merchants that couldn’t hold political office (Think middle class) • Members of both groups were citizens and could vote • Consuls-Twoconsuls ran the government and led the army into battle (Think of two people doing what our president does) • Praetors- Directed the civil law, law applied to citizens and later non-citizens (Think judges)
The Roman State • Roman Senate- About 300 patricians whoserved for life made up the original Senate • At first, the Senate only gave advice, by 400 B.C. it could make laws • Centuriate Assembly- An important people’s assembly that elected the consuls and praetors, and passed laws • It was organized by classes based on wealth, so the wealthiest citizens always were the majority • Conflict between the plebeians and patricians was very common • The plebeians wanted political and social equality, especially because they fought in the army to protect Rome. • 471 B.C.- a popular (voted in) assembly called the Council of the Plebeians was created • Officials called Tribunes were empowered to protect the plebeians (Think police officers) • By 400 B.C.- plebeians could be consuls • 287 B.C.- The council of the plebs received the right to pass laws for all Rome • Still, the wealthy ruling class held most of the political power
Roman Law • One of Rome’s most important contributions was its system of law • 450 B.C.- During the republic, Rome developed a system of law known as the Twelve Tables • Twelve Tables- Laws that govern issues between individuals that applied to its citizens called civil law • As Rome expanded however, it ruled many foreign foreigners who were not covered under civil law • Gradually, a second system of law, known as the Law of Nationsemerged • It applied to all people under Roman rule, citizens and non citizens • Later, when Rome extended citizenship across the empire, the two systems merged • As Roman law developed, certain basic principles evolved and this is where the belief that laws should be applied fair and equally to all. • It ideas that we recognize today: a person is innocent until proven otherwise, the accused has a right to a defense before a judge, and judges should decide cases based on evidence
Rome Conquers the Mediterranean • Rome faced a strong power in the Mediterranean—Carthage • 800 B.C.- Carthagewas founded on the coast of North Africa • Carthage was a Mediterranean trading power that threatened Rome’s trade • 264 B.C.- The two groups began a long struggle for control of the Mediterranean • First Punic War- Between Rome and Carthage • Rome sent troops to Sicily • The Romans knew they needed a large navy to win the war • Rome defeated Carthage’s navy, and in 241 B.C. Carthage gave up its rights to Sicily and paid money to Rome • Sicily became Rome’s first province (like a state in the U.S.)
Rome Conquers the Mediterranean • Second Punic War- Carthage wanted revenge • Hannibal, led Carthage in the war, which lasted from 218 to 201 B.C. • To take the war to Rome, Hannibal entered Spain, moved east, and then crossed the Alps with a large army, including 6,000 horses and elephants • Many soldiers and animals died during the crossing, but Rome was still under a real threat • At the Battle of Cannae, Rome lost almost 40,000 men • Rome raised another army • Hannibal roamed throughout Italy but could not successfully attack the major cities • Rome then attacked Carthage, forcing the Hannibal to return to Carthage • At the Battle of Zama, Rome crushed Hannibal’s forces • Spain became a Roman province, and now Rome controlled the western Mediterranean. • Third Punic War- In 146 B.C.,Roman soldiers sacked Carthage • 50,000 men, women, and children were sold into slavery • Carthage now became a Roman province • 200 B.C. to 100 B.C.- Rome also conquered Macedonia andGreece and became provinces • Rome now was the major power of the Mediterranean Sea
Inequality and Unrest in Rome • 200 B.C.- The Senate, made up mostly of the landed aristocracy, governed Rome • The Senate and political offices were increasingly controlled by a small group of wealthy, powerful families • Small farmers had been the backbone of Rome’s army and state They were losing land (and power) large, wealthy landowners • They formed a new urban class of landless poor, and Rome suffered economic and social unrest • Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, reform-minded aristocrats, thought the problem was the decline of the small farmer • They called for laws giving the public land of the aristocrats back to the landless poor • 133 B.C.- a group of senators killed Tiberius • Later, his brother Gaius was killed
Inequality and Unrest in Rome • The situation continued to get worse due to a change in the army • A general named Marius recruited soldiers from among the landless poor and promised them land if they swore allegiance to him • The small landowning farmers had made up the army, and their loyalty was to the state • After Marius, generals became political, and individual generals gained great power • Sulla was the next general to hold great political power • He was given command of a war in Asia Minor • The Council of the Plebeians tried to give the command to Marius • 82 B.C.- Civil war broke out, and Sulla won by marching his army into Rome and taking power • Sulla restored power to the Senate and took away most of the powers of the popular assemblies to try to restore the republic of old • Taking power through the military (called a coup) became standard in the later years of the Republic
The Collapse of the Republic • 82 to 31 B.C.- Many civil wars in Rome • Three men—Crassus, Pompey, and Julius Caesar—eventually came out on top • Crassus was wealthy and the other two were military commanders and heroes • 60 B.C.- They combined their power to form the First Triumvirate • Triumvirate- A government by three people with equal power • Each man had a military command • Crassus was killed and the Senate decided that rule by Pompey alone would be best • The Senate ordered Julius Caesar to give up his command • He refused and kept his loyal army and moved close to Rome by illegally crossing the Rubicon River • Our expression “to cross the Rubicon” means unable to return
The Collapse of the Republic • 47 B.C. - Caesar defeated Pompey and became dictator • Dictator- An absolute ruler • Caesar knew Rome needed reforms and gave land to the poor and expanded the Senate to 900 • He filled the Senate with his supporters and weakened its power • 44 B.C.- Caesar would be assassinated by a group of leading senators
The Collapse of the Republic • Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate after Caesar’s death • Soon, however, Octavian and Antony divided the Roman world between themselves: Octavian took the west and Antony took the east • They came into conflict • Antony allied with Egypt’s queen Cleopatra VII • 31 B.C. - Octavian defeated them at the Battle of Actium • Both fled to Egypt and committed suicide a year later • The Roman Republic ended • A new period of Roman history known as the Age of Augustus
The Age of Augustus • 27 B.C.- Octavian proclaimed “the restoration of the Republic” • He gave only some power to the Senate and became Rome’s 1stemperor • The Senate awarded him the title of Augustus, or “the revered one.” • Augustus was popular even though the army was his chief source of power • The Senate gave him the title of imperator, or commander in chief • We get our word “emperor” from this word • Augustus had an army of 28 legions of 5,000 troops each • Only citizens could be in the legions • Others could serve in auxiliary forces, which numbered around 130,000 under Augustus • He also established the praetorian guard of 9,000 men to protect the emperor • Augustus stabilized Rome’s frontiers and conquered new areas • German warriorswiped out three Roman legions • The defeat taught Augustus that Rome’s power was limited, a fact that bothered him
The Early Empire • A.D. 14 to 180- Called the Early Empire • After Augustus, the emperor was allowed to pick his successor from his family, adopted or natural • The first four emperors after Augustus were from his family: Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero • The emperor gained more power and became more corrupt • Nero, for example, had anyone he wanted out of his way simply killed, including his own mother • Lacking an army, the Senate could not oppose Nero • His legions finally revolted against him, and he committed suicide • 2nd Century- A series of 5 so-called good emperors ledRome: Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius • PaxRomana – the “Roman Peace”- A time of peace and prosperity that lasted for almost 100 years • The good emperors stopped random executions, respected the ruling class, and maintained peace • They took more power from the Senate; officials appointed and directed by the emperor ran the government • They adopted capable men into their families as successors • Some instituted programs to help the people, such as helping the poor to educate their children, and some oversaw widespread building projects of aqueducts, bridges, roads, and harbors
The Early Empire • Rome at first expanded further during the early Empire • Under Trajan, Roman rule went into Dacia (Romania), Mesopotamia, and the Sinai Peninsula • Hadrian realized that the empire was getting too large to rule, however, and withdrew troops from Mesopotamia and became defensive along Rome’s frontiers • He strengthened fortifications between the Rhine and Danube Rivers • He also built a wall (Hadrian’s Wall) in northern Britain to keep out the Scots • Defending the empire became increasingly difficult • 2nd Century- the Roman Empire covered about 3.5 million square miles • Its population probably was over 50 million • The imperial government helped unify the empire by acknowledging local customs and granting Roman citizenship • A.D. 212- the emperor Caracalla gave Roman citizenship to all free people in the empire • Cities were important in the spread of Roman culture, Roman law, and the Latin language in the western part of the empire • Greek was spoken in the east • The mixture of Roman and Greek culture that resulted from the Roman Empire’s spread is called the Greco-Roman civilization
The Early Empire • The Early Empire was prosperous • Internal peace helped trade grow • Trade went beyond the empire’s frontiers, even including silk goods from China • Large amounts of grain were imported to feed the poor and luxury items came in for the rich • Farming remained the basis of Rome’s prosperity and the work of most of the people • Landed estates called latifundia dominated farming • Largely slave labor raised sheepand cattle on these estates • There were many small peasant farms as well • There also was a huge gap between rich and poor in Roman society • Small farmers often depended on the huge estates of the wealthy, who lived extravagant lives • Many poor lived in the cities • Thousands of unemployed people depended on the emperor’s handouts of grain to survive
The Roman Family • The Roman family was headed by the paterfamilias,the dominant male • The household also included his wife, sons with their wives and children, unmarried daughters, and slaves • Unlike the Greeks, the Romans raised their children at home • All upper-class Romanchildren learned to read • Teachers often were Greek slaves because prospering in the empire required knowing both Greek and Latin • Roman boys learned reading and writing, moral principles, family values, law, and physical training • Roman males ended their childhood at 16 with a special ceremony • They exchanged their purple-edge togas for the white toga of manhood • Some upper-class girls were educated privately or in primary schools • At the time the boys entered secondary schools and Roman girls were getting married • Like the Greeks, Roman males believed the weakness of women made it necessary for them to have male guardians
The Roman Family • The paterfamilias usually was the guardian and also arranged the marriages of his daughters • The legal minimum age for girls to marry was 12, though 14 was more common • Theage for boys was 14 • Divorce was introduced in the third century B.C. and was easy to obtain • Both men and women could sue for divorce • 2nd Century A.D.- the paterfamilias no longer had complete authority in the family • For example, he could not sell his children into slavery or have them put to death • Women increasingly were not required to have a male guardian • Upper-class women could own, sell, and inherit property • Unlike Greek wives, Roman wives were not segregated from men in the home • Outside the home women could attend the races, the theater, and events in the amphitheater • In the latter two places they had their own seating section and women could not participate directly in politics
Slavery • No people relied on slavery as much as the Romans • Before the 3rd century B.C., even a small Roman farmer would have one or two slaves, the wealthy had more. • As Rome conquered the Mediterranean area, large numbers of war captives werebrought to Italy as slaves • Greeks were prized as tutors, musicians, doctors and artists • Slaves worked in shops, kept house, waited tables, were personal servants, and made crafts • They built roads and public buildings • Conditions often were pitiful
Slavery • One Roman writer argued that it was cheaper to work slaves to death and replace them than to care for them • Masters feared slave revolts • Punishments were harsh: the murder of a master by a slave might mean all the remaining household’s slaves would be killed • The most famous slave revolt in Italy was led by the gladiator Spartacus in 73 B.C. • 70,000 slaves joined up with Spartacus, and they defeated several Roman armies before being defeated themselves in 71 B.C. • Spartacus was killed and thousands of his followers were crucified
Daily Life in Rome • Rome had the largest population of any city in the empire, close to 1 million by the time of Augustus • Rome was overcrowded and noisy • Wagons and carts were banned during the day, but their noise at night made sleeping difficult • Even though Augustus organized a police force, Rome could be dangerous • One also might be soaked by the filth thrown from the windows of one of Rome’s huge apartment buildings • The poor lived in apartment blocks called insulae • As tall as six stories, these badly constructed buildings often collapsed
Daily Life in Rome • Fires were a constant threat and hard to put out • 64 A.D.- Nero “fiddled as Rome burned”- Great Fire of Rome
Daily Life in Rome • High rents forced entire families to live in one room • The apartments did not have plumbing or central heating • These uncomfortable conditions made many Romans spend most of their time in the street • Rome was adorned with unequaled public buildings, such as baths, temples, theaters, and markets • Beginning with Augustus, the city’s two hundred thousand poor received free grain from the emperor • The people were entertained by grand public spectacles and entertainments • The most popular were the gladiatorial contests, in which animals, slaves, and condemned criminals would fight to the death • Horse and chariot races at the Circus Maximuswere also popular, as were dramatic performances
Poetry • Epics- long, narrative poems • Satire- to make fun of something
Philosophy • Romans borrowed much of their philosophy from the Greeks • Stoics-stressed the importance of duty and acceptance of one’s fate and showed concern for the well-being of people Marcus Aurelius- Known as the Stoic Emperor
Art • Realism-portraying their subjects or world as it is • A statue of a soldier, a writer or an emperor might capture an expression of smugness, discontent or pride • Idealism-transforming something to be more ideal • Sculptors transformed Augustus who was neither handsome nor impressive to be a symbol of power and leadership • Romans beautified their homes with works of art • Artists depicted scenes from Roman literature and daily life in frescoes and mosaics-picture made for chips of colored stone or glass
Architecture • Immense palaces, temples, and stadiums stood as mighty monuments to Roman power and dignity • The Colosseum was ancient Rome’s largest stadium • Its floors were about the size of a modern day football field packing 50,000 people • They could crowd into the marble and wooden benches and be protected by the sun by giant canvas roof • Shows were put on at the Colosseum where spectators watched the slaughter of exotic animals, gladiator battling to death, and mock naval battles
Architecture • The Romans improved on devices such as the column and the arch • Using concrete as a building material, they developed the rounded dome to roof large spaces • The most significant dome structure is the Pantheon, a temple to all the Roman gods which still stands in Rome
Romanesque Architecture • Romanesque ("Roman-like") was first used to designate a style of architecture that used Roman arches and had thick, heavy walls, based upon the basilica (a large public building) • Characteristics of Romanesque Architecture: • Thick walls • Broad, rather than steep roofs • Small windows – not much natural light • Roman arches or square top entrances, windows • D. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, an explosion of building in medieval Europe, • especially of churches, took place. Initially, these cathedrals were in the Romanesque • style, built in the basilica shape favored in the late Roman Empire. The Romanesque • basilica was topped with a long, round, stone arched structure called a barrel vault. • E. Because stone roofs were so heavy, the churches needed massive pillars and had little • space for windows. The Romanesque churches, therefore, were dark and resembled • fortresses. • F. In the twelfth century the new, Gothic style appeared. The Gothic cathedral is one of • the artistic triumphs of the High Middle Ages. Two innovations made it possible. • G. One innovation was replacing the barrel vault with ribbed vaults and pointed arches. • The Gothic cathedrals rose higher, therefore, creating an impression of the building • reaching towards God. • H. The other innovation was the flying buttress—a heavy, arched, stone support on the • outside of the building. This distributed the weight of the church’s vaulted ceilings • and eliminated the think heavy walls of the Romanesque style. Since Gothic cathedrals • had fairly thin walls, they could have windows, which were filled with magnificent • stained glass. The windows also created a play of natural light inside the cathedral; • natural light was believed to be a symbol of the divine light of God. • I. With its soaring towers and light-filled interior, the Gothic cathedral testifies to an age • when most people believed in a spiritual world.
Sainte-Foy is one of the earliest surviving examples of a Romanesque style pilgrimage church
