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2. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture The Symbolic Nature of Culture • The Symbolic Nature of Culture • The Origin of Language • Language • Language and Perception • Symbols and Nature • Gestures • Values • Norms • Sanctions • Folkways and Mores Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology

3. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture The Symbolic Nature of Culture • A symbol is any object, typically material, which is meant to represent another (usually abstract), even if there is no meaningful relationship. • Culture is based on a shared set of symbols and meanings.Symbolic culture enables human communication and must be taught. • Symbolic culture is more malleable and adaptable than biological evolution. • The belief that culture is symbolically coded and can be taught from one person to another means that cultures, although bounded, can change. • According to sociologists, symbols make up one of the 5 key elements of culture; the other key elements are language, values, beliefs, and norms. The Polish Alphabets View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-189-8968

4. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture The Origin of Language • There is no consensus on the ultimate origin or age of human language. • Continuity-based theories stress that language is so complex that it must have evolved from earlier pre-linguistic systems among pre-humans. • Discontinuity-based theories stress that language is a unique human trait that appeared fairly suddenly in the transition from pre-hominids to early man. Language in daily life View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/the-origin-of-language-190-4771

5. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Language • The word "language" has at least two basic meanings: language as a general concept, and "a language" (a specific linguistic system, e.g. "French"), a distinction first made by Ferdinand de Saussure. • Languages, understood as the particular set of speech norms of a particular community, are also a part of the larger culture of the community that speak them. • Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others. • The organic definition of language sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behavior--to learn languages and produce and understand utterances. • The structuralist view of language sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning. • The functional theory of language sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate. A Bilingual Sign View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/language-191-3595

6. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture • Humans use language as a way of signalling identity with one cultural group and difference from others. • The organic definition of language sees language primarily as the mental faculty that allows humans to undertake linguistic behaviour: to learn languages and produce and understand utterances.These kinds of definitions are often applied by studies of language within a cognitive science framework and in neurolinguistics. • The structuralist view of language sees language as a formal system of signs governed by grammatical rules of combination to communicate meaning.This definition stresses the fact that human languages can be described as closed structural systems consisting of rules that relate particular signs to particular meanings. • The functional theory of language sees language as a system of communication that enables humans to cooperate.This definition stresses the social functions of language and the fact that humans use it to express themselves and to manipulate objects in their environment. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/language-191-3595

7. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Language and Perception • The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its speakers conceptualize their world (i.e., world view), or otherwise influences their cognitive processes. • A main point of debate in the discussion of linguistic relativity is the strength of correlation between language and thought.The strongest form of correlation is linguistic determinism, which holds that language entirely determines an individual's range of possible cognitive processes. • The hypothesis of linguistic determinism is now generally agreed to be false, although many researchers still study weaker forms of correlation, often producing positive empirical evidence for a correlation. • The crucial question is whether human psychological faculties are mostly universal and innate, or whether they are mostly a result of learning, and, therefore, subject to cultural and social processes that vary between places and times. On Language and Perception View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/language-and-perception-192-3030

8. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Symbols and Nature • Human language is thought to be fundamentally different from and of much higher complexity than that of other species as it is based on a complex system of rules that result in an indefinite number of possible utterances from a finite number of elements. • Written languages use visual symbols to represent the sounds of the spoken languages, but they still require syntactic rules that govern the production of meaning from sequences of words. • Human language differs from communication used by animals because the symbols and grammatical rules of any particular language are largely arbitrary, so that the system can only be acquired through social interaction. • The study of how signs and meanings are combined, used, and interpreted is called semiotics. • Signs can be composed of sounds, gestures, letters, or symbols, depending on whether the language is spoken, signed, or written. • Language is traditionally seen as consisting of three parts: signs, meanings, and a code connecting signs with their meanings. Can Parrots Really Talk? View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/symbols-and-nature-193-5550

9. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Gestures • Gestures allow individuals to communicate a variety of feelings and thoughts, from contempt and hostility to approval and affection, often together with body language in addition to spoken words. • The most familiar categories of gestures are the so-called emblems or quotable gestures.These are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words, such as the handwave used in the U.S. for "hello" and "goodbye". • Another broad category of gestures comprises those gestures used spontaneously when we speak.These gestures are closely coordinated with speech. • Gestural languages such as American Sign Language and its regional siblings operate as complete natural languages that are gestural in modality. • Gesturing is probably universal; there have been no reports of communities that do not gesture.Gestures are a crucial part of everyday conversation such as chatting, describing a route, or negotiating prices on a market. Gestural Language View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/gestures-194-8181

10. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Values • The values of a society can often be identified by noting which people receive honor or respect. • Values are related to the norms of a culture, but they are more global and abstract than norms. • Norms are rules for behavior in specific situations, while values identify what should be judged as good or evil. • Members take part in a culture even if each member's personal values do not entirely agree with some of the normative values sanctioned in the culture. • Values clarification is helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for. • Cognitive moral education is based on the belief that students should learn to value things like democracy and justice as their moral reasoning develops. Punk View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/values-195-8182

11. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Norms • Norms can be defined as the shared ways of thinking, feeling, desiring, deciding, and acting which are observable in regularly repeated behaviours and are adopted because they are assumed to solve problems. • Social norms are neither static nor universal; they change with respect to time and vary with respect to culture, social classes, and social groups. • Social norms can be enforced formally (e.g., through sanctions) or informally (e.g., through body language and non-verbal communication cues). • One form of norm adoption is the formal method, where norms are written down and formally adopted.However, social norms are more likely to be informal and emerge gradually (e.g., not wearing socks with sandals). Formal Sanctions View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/norms-196-3292

12. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Sanctions • Sanctions can either be positive (rewards) or negative (punishment). • Sanctions can arise from either formal or informal control. • With informal sanctions, ridicule or ostracism can realign a straying  individual towards norms.Informal sanctions may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, and disapproval. • Groups, organizations, and societies of various kinds can promulgate rules that act as formal sanctions to reward or punish behavior. For example, government and organizations use law enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions such as fines and imprisonment. • To maintain control and regulate their subjects, authoritarian organizations and governments use severe sanctions such as censorship, expulsion, and limits on political freedom. Formal and Informal Sanctions View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/sanctions-197-9153

13. Culture and Socialization > The Symbolic Nature of Culture Folkways and Mores • Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of a community, can exist as both formal and informal rules of behavior.Informal norms can be divided into two distinct groups: folkways and mores. • Both "mores" and "folkways" are terms coined by the American sociologist William Graham Sumner. • Mores distinguish the difference between right and wrong, while folkways draw a line between right and rude.While folkways may raise an eyebrow if violated, mores dictate morality and come with heavy consequences. William Graham Sumner, 1840-1910 View on Boundless.com Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com www.boundless.com/sociology/textbooks/boundless-sociology-textbook/culture-and-socialization-3/the-symbolic-nature-of-culture-30/folkways-and-mores-198-4919

14. Appendix Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com

15. Culture and Socialization Key terms • culture The beliefs, values, behavior, and material objects that constitute a people's way of life. • folkway A custom or belief common to members of a society or culture. • gestural languages A gestural language is a language which, instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns, uses manual communication and body language to convey meaning.This can involve simultaneously combining hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to fluidly express a speaker's thoughts. • gesture A motion of the limbs or body, especially one made to emphasize speech. • human language Human language is typically used for communication, and may be spoken, signed, or written. • Informal sanctions These are the reactions of individuals and groups that bring about conformity to norms and laws.These can include peer and community pressure, bystander intervention in a crime, and collective responses such as citizen patrol groups. • language A form of communication using words either spoken or gestured with the hands and structured with grammar, often with a writing system. • linguistics The scientific study of language. • Max Weber (1864–1920) A German sociologist, philosopher, and political economist who profoundly influenced social theory, social research, and the discipline of sociology itself. • mores A set of moral norms or customs derived from generally accepted practices.Mores derive from the established practices of a society rather than its written laws. • norm A rule that is enforced by members of a community. • Perception (cognition) That which is detected by the five senses; not necessarily understood (imagine looking through fog, trying to understand if you see a small dog or a cat); also that which is detected within consciousness as a thought, intuition, deduction, etc. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com

16. Culture and Socialization • prehistory The history of human culture prior to written records. • quotable gestures Quotable gestures are conventional, culture-specific gestures that can be used as replacement for words. • relativity The state of being relative to something else. • sanction a penalty, or some coercive measure, intended to ensure compliance; especially one adopted by several nations, or by an international body • semiotics The study of signs and symbols, especially as means of language or communication. • semiotics The study of signs and symbols, especially as means of language or communication. • social classes Social class (or simply "class") is a set of concepts in the social sciences and political theory centered on models of social stratification in which people are grouped into a set of hierarchical social categories. • social control any control, either formal or informal, that is exerted by a group, especially by one's peers • social group A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, interact with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a common identity. • social norms Social norms are described by sociologists as being laws that govern society's behaviors. • subculture A portion of a culture distinguished from the larger society around it by its customs or other features. • symbol Any object, typically material, which is meant to represent another (usually abstract), even if there is no meaningful relationship. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com

17. Culture and Socialization • symbolic Referring to something with an implicit meaning. • William Graham Sumner An American academic with numerous books and essays on American history, economic history, political theory, sociology, and anthropology. • written language A written language is the representation of a language by means of a writing system. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com

18. Culture and Socialization On Language and Perception Cognition and Communication Research Centre film describing recent research on the mapping between language and perception, and whether the language one speaks affects how one thinks. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com

19. Culture and Socialization Edward Sapir Empirical research into the question of linguistic relativity has been associated mainly with the names of Benjamin Lee Whorf, who wrote on the topic in the 1930s, and his mentor Edward Sapir, who did not himself write extensively on the topic. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikipedia. "Edward Sapir." Public domainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Edward_Sapir.jpgView on Boundless.com

20. Culture and Socialization The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that language shapes the way we see the world. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com

21. Culture and Socialization Formal Sanctions Norms may be enforced through informal sanctions, such as derision, or formal sanctions, such as arrest. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Handcuffed man (2)." CC BY-SA 3.0http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Handcuffed_man_(2).jpgView on Boundless.com

22. Culture and Socialization Same-Sex Marriage and Social Norms In most Western countries, norms have prohibited same-sex marriage, but those norms are now changing. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Same Sex Marriage-02." CC BYhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Same_Sex_Marriage-02.jpgView on Boundless.com

23. Culture and Socialization Social Norms of Personal Space Students demonstrate social norms of personal space by violating the norms.This type of experiment is called a breaching experiment. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com

24. Culture and Socialization A Bilingual Sign Members of a culture usually share a common language.Here, a bilingual sign in Wales tells both English and Welsh speakers that smoking is prohibited. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "No smoking Welsh bilingual sign." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:No_smoking_Welsh_bilingual_sign.jpgView on Boundless.com

25. Culture and Socialization Speaking in Tongues: The History of Language - Episode # 1 Let There Be Words Where and when was language invented?No one knows for sure. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com

26. Culture and Socialization Origin of Language Skull of Homo Neanderthalensis discovered in La Chapelle Aux Saints, France.It is unknown whether Neanderthal humans had language. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikipedia. "Language." CC BY-SA 3.0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language#OriginView on Boundless.com

27. Culture and Socialization Language in daily life The origin of language in the human species is a widely discussed topic. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Flickr. "Sign in to Yahoo." CC BYhttp://www.flickr.com/photos/shehal/1187646003/in/photostream/View on Boundless.com

28. Culture and Socialization William Graham Sumner, 1840-1910 William Graham Sumner coined the terms "folkways" and "mores." Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "William Graham Sumner." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:William_Graham_Sumner.pngView on Boundless.com

29. Culture and Socialization Can Parrots Really Talk? Parrots mimic the sounds of human language, but have they really learned the symbolic system? Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com

30. Culture and Socialization A Barking Dog Animal sounds, like a dog's bark, may serve basic communication functions, but they lack the symbolic elements of human language. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Military dog barking." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Military_dog_barking.JPGView on Boundless.com

31. Culture and Socialization A Sentence Diagram Human language's grammatical structure makes it unique. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Sentencediagram." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sentencediagram.jpgView on Boundless.com

32. Culture and Socialization Gestural Language American Sign Language, or ASL, is a gestural language.This is how to sign the letters A-S-L. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "American Sign Language ASL." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:American_Sign_Language_ASL.svgView on Boundless.com

33. Culture and Socialization Hand Gestures Military air marshallers use hand and body gestures to direct flight operations aboard aircraft carriers. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikipedia. "Gestures." CC BY-SA 3.0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GesturesView on Boundless.com

34. Culture and Socialization Pointing Pointing at another person with an extended finger is considered rude in many cultures. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikipedia. "Gestures." CC BY-SA 3.0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GesturesView on Boundless.com

35. Culture and Socialization Declaration of Independence Independence and freedom are fundamental values in the U.S. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia.CC BYhttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Us_declaration_independence.jpg/200px-Us_declaration_independence.jpgView on Boundless.com

36. Culture and Socialization Punks as non-conformists Members of the punk movement refused to conform to some of the normative values prevalent in Western culture. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Punk-with-strongbow." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Punk-with-strongbow.JPGView on Boundless.com

37. Culture and Socialization The Liberty Bell Many consider liberty to be a fundamental American value. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Amer0023 - Flickr - NOAA Photo Library." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amer0023_-_Flickr_-_NOAA_Photo_Library.jpgView on Boundless.com

38. Culture and Socialization Punk Punk social groups are often considered marginal and are excluded from certain mainstream social spaces. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Punk-with-strongbow." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Punk-with-strongbow.JPGView on Boundless.com

39. Culture and Socialization The Polish Alphabets Cultures are shared systems of symbols and meanings.Alphabets are one example of a symbolic element of culture. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Polish-alphabet." CC BY-SAhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Polish-alphabet.pngView on Boundless.com

40. Culture and Socialization Formal and Informal Sanctions Societies use formal and informal sanctions to enforce norms. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com View on Boundless.com

41. Culture and Socialization Shame Shame can be used as a type of informal sanction. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Shame." CC BY-SA 2.0http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Shame.jpgView on Boundless.com

42. Culture and Socialization A Prison Cell Block Incarceration is a type of formal sanction. Free to share, print, make copies and changes. Get yours at www.boundless.com Wikimedia. "Wisconsin State Prison Cell BlockWisconsin State Prison Cell Blocks." Public domainhttp://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wisconsin_State_Prison_Cell_BlockWisconsin_State_Prison_Cell_Blocks.jpgView on Boundless.com

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