Interventions to Facilitate Emergent Literacy Session 5

1. Interventions to Facilitate Emergent LiteracySession 5

2. After completing this session, participants will define emergent literacy and identify the components of emergent literacy: oral language, phonological awareness, concept development, knowledge of the conventions of print/braille and of print/braille intentionality, alphabetic knowledge, and environmental factors. Objectives

3. After completing this session, participants will describe recommended early intervention practices for facilitating emergent literacy as collaborative and family centered, developmentally appropriate, and evidence based to achieve functional outcomes within naturally occurring learning opportunities. describe the importance of families and caregiving environments in promoting emergent literacy. Objectives

4. After completing this session, participants will discuss the potential impact of disabilities on emergent literacy and strategies to facilitate concept development, motor development, and accessible literacy environments. describe strategies for promoting emergent literacy in children with visual impairments and additional disabilities, including those who use augmentative and alternative communication systems. Objectives

5. After completing this session, participants will discuss emergent literacy interventions including play; routines-based literacy; responsive literacy environments; shared storybook reading, especially dialogic reading, storybook preview, and storybook sounds; storytelling; and dialogue. Objectives

6. Emergent literacy is a developmental process that begins at birth by which children acquire the foundation for reading and writing. Though children with disabilities, including children with visual impairments, face challenges in developing emergent literacy skills and concepts, they can and do experience literacy success when provided with appropriate support and modifications. Emergent Literacy

7. Whitehurst and Lonigan use the term emergent literacy to emphasize that �the acquisition of literacy is best conceptualized as a developmental continuum, with its origins early in the life of a child, rather than as an all-or- one phenomenon that begins when children start school� (1998, p. 848). Emergent Literacy Begins at Birth

8. Families are essential to the development of emergent literacy; children�s first exposure to reading and writing is usually in the home. Researchers have repeatedly found that the home literacy environments of toddlers and preschoolers have measurable effects on later literacy skills. Marvin & Mirenda, 1993 McLane & McNamee, 1991 Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell, 1994 Rosenkoetter & Barton, 2002 Weinberger, 1996 Families and Emergent Literacy

9. Young children�s abilities to listen, read, write, and speak (or use augmentative communication devices) develop concurrently and interrelatedly. IRA & NAEYC, 1998 Koppenhaver, Coleman, Kalman, & Yoder, 1991 Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998 Oral and Written Language Develop Concurrently and Interrelatedly

10. Oral language (especially listening comprehension, vocabulary, and narrative knowledge) Phonological awareness Concept development Knowledge of the conventions of print/braille and of print/braille intentionality Alphabetic knowledge Environmental factors Key Components of Emergent Literacy

11. Emergent Literacy and IDEIA 2004

12. Recommended Practices

13. Sources of Recommended Practices for This Module Empirical literature on early literacy for preschool-aged children Literature on children with visual impairments The Research and Training Center (RTC) on Early Childhood Development (http://www.researchtopractice.info/) led by Carl Dunst to bridge research and practice in early childhood special education

14. Sources of Recommended Practices for This Module DEC Recommended Practices: A Comprehensive Guide for Practical Application in Early Intervention/Early Childhood Special Education by Sandall, Hemmeter, Smith, and McLean (2005) Our experiences as researchers and practitioners in the field of early childhood special education and early childhood visual impairment

15. Developmentally Appropriate Practices Although we have included practices derived from literature on preschool-aged children, we do so cautiously and hesitantly. Ideally, research on infants and toddlers with disabilities and their families should guide early interventionists and early childhood special educators.

16. Developmentally Appropriate Practices When reviewing literature on older children, we have constantly asked, �What would be developmentally appropriate for infants and toddlers with disabilities?� Early interventionists and families should remember that emergent literacy evolves �from an early age from children�s exposure to interactions in the social contexts in which literacy is a component, and in the absence of formal instruction� (Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998, p. 849).

17. Family-Centered and Collaborative Practices Interventions to facilitate emergent literacy should be family centered: involve shared responsibility and collaboration among all team members, strengthen family functioning, include individualized and flexible practices, and employ strengths- and assets-based practices. Trivette & Dunst, 2005

18. Intervention that is child focused includes designing safe and accessible environments that promote active and interactive engagement, adapting practices to meet the individual and changing needs of each child, and systematically promoting children�s learning within and across environments, activities, and routines. Wolery, 2005 Recommended Practices for Child-Focused Interventions

19. Child-focused interventions should promote functional outcomes as identified by the Early Childhood Outcome Center (2005): positive social relationships with others; engagement in meaningful experiences that allow children to acquire and use knowledge and skills, and engage actively in the world around them; and independence in taking appropriate actions to meet their needs. Recommended Practices for Child-Focused Interventions

20. Caregivers play a primary role in exposing children to emergent literacy experiences. Both exposure to storybooks and parent teaching of literacy influence literacy development across ages. McLane & McNamee, 1991 Payne, Whitehurst, & Angell, 1994 Rosenkoetter & Barton, 2002 S�n�chal & LeFevre, 2001 Family Literacy

21. Attachment Expectations Specialized knowledge and skills Access Parental literacy Factors AffectingFamily Literacy

22. Attachment is the formation of significant and stable emotional connections between individuals, such as an infant and mother. The attachment process begins in early infancy as the child bonds with one or more primary caregivers. Attachment

23. Crying when separated from parents Staying close by parents Expressing joy upon reunion with parents Social referencing or �checking in� Reacting to strangers Secure Attachment Behaviors

24. Children who are securely attached are more likely to cooperate with their parents, actively explore their environment, build stronger relationships with others, and be involved in communication and emergent literacy events. Dodici, Draper, & Peterson, 2003 Attachment, Communication, and Emergent Literacy

25. Adults who have difficulty in recognizing children�s subtle responses (e.g., eye gaze, changes in facial expression, simple vocalizations) may stop asking questions and lower their expectations of children. Early interventionists can support communication and literacy development by helping families and caregivers to recognize children�s subtle cues so that they will provide contingent responses to their nonverbal behavior during story reading. Reading Subtle Cues

26. Caregivers� expectations can influence children�s literacy development. Morrow, 2001 Expectations

27. In a study of parental support for emergent literacy of children with visual impairments, Craig (1996) found that caregivers of children expected to be print readers provided a more responsive literacy environment (more active and interactive engagement, modeling, accessible reading materials, etc.) than caregivers of children expected to be braille readers. Expectations

28. Craig (1996) also found that caregivers of children with visual impairments and multiple disabilities ranked self-help skills as the highest goal for their children, and caregivers of children with visual impairments and no additional disabilities ranked literacy as the highest goal for their children. Expectations

29. Families of children with visual impairments must also know about their child�s visual condition and how it might affect literacy, accessible books and how to obtain them, potential challenges in concept development, the importance of active engagement and hands-on experiences, and the importance of providing exposure to environmental print and other literacy features that are not accessible. Specialized Knowledge and Skills

30. Early interventionists can help interested parents who are not literate to find an adult literacy program. While caregivers are learning to read, they can be encouraged to check out books with audiotapes or CDs from the library and listen to them while looking at books with their children. Supporting Parental Literacy

31. Early interventionists can help caregivers locate other adults or older children who can read and write with their children. If caregivers are unable to purchase literacy materials, the early intervention team may be able to help the family obtain a library card and to locate other local resources. Supporting Parental Literacy

32. Teachers of children with visual impairments (TVIs) may provide braille instruction for families or provide information about local or distance learning courses in braille for families. Interventionists can lend families braille materials or connect them with agencies that can do so. Just Enough to Know Better, published by the National Braille Press, is a braille primer appropriate for caregivers. Supporting FamilyBraille Literacy

33. Informational support how to share literacy activities with children modeling literacy interactions Material support examples of appropriate and accessible books Emotional support listening to parents express successes and challenges related to literacy activities Three Types of Family Support

34. Disabilities, sensory impairments and motor impairments, in particular, may affect children�s concept development, motor and movement development, and access to literacy environments in ways that, in turn, affect emergent literacy. Impact of Disabilities on Emergent Literacy

35. Disabilities and Concept Development Children with disabilities may have fewer concepts about the world. They may not readily grasp cause-and-effect relationships, and they may not be motivated to explore because they are unable to see, hear, or attend to the enticing objects, people, and activities around them. Conceptual knowledge helps children understand the content of stories and conversation and is related to reading comprehension in the second and later grades.

36. Visual Impairments and Motor Development Researchers, clinicians, and theorists from throughout the world have documented delays or differences in motor and concept development in children with visual impairments (Brambring, 2001; Fraiberg, 1977; Hatton et al., 1997; Sonksen, Levitt, & Kitzinger, 1984; Strickling & Pogrund, 2002; Tr�ster & Brambring, 1994; Tr�ster, Hecker, & Brambring, 1994; Warren & Hatton, 2004). Concept and motor development are linked to emergent literacy because they contribute to exploration and understanding of the world.

37. Disabilities and Access to Literacy Experiences Because children with disabilities may not be aware of incidental literacy activities that occur in their environments (e.g., home, child care centers, the community), early interventionists and families may have to consciously introduce children to, or mediate, direct experiences that will familiarize children with literacy-related items, tools, and activities in appropriate media.

38. Disabilities and Responsive Caregiving Parents of children with disabilities are more at risk for depression. Caregivers who are depressed are typically not as responsive; therefore, children with disabilities may have fewer literacy opportunities. Children with disabilities often provide subtle communication cues that are difficult to interpret, thereby impeding responsiveness.

39. In addition to implementing strategies for communication and language development, as described in earlier sessions of this module, caregivers and early interventionists should facilitate emergent literacy by promoting concept development, enhancing motor development, and creating accessible literacy environments. Facilitating EmergentLiteracy

40. Through watching and seeing things, children develop many concepts about the world. Even when children use other senses to develop concepts, vision is the unifying sense that integrates information from the other senses. Concept Development

41. Children with visual impairments may be delayed in developing many concepts about the world, including body awareness, object concept or object permanence, classification, and conservation. Warren & Hatton, 2003 Concept Development

42. When facilitating concept development in children with visual impairments, consider using a developmental approach. The earliest concept development activities could focus on awareness and enjoyment of early interactions with caregivers and on the infant�s own body and body parts. Facilitating Concept Development

43. Daily routines provide endless opportunities for concept development, including awareness of family members and significant others; the physical environment (e.g., cribs, own room, house, neighborhood, community); and excursions into the community. Facilitating Concept Development in Daily Routines

44. Families and early interventionists may need to guide children�s exploration of the environment and objects in a responsive and respectful manner so that children learn about objects, events, and their interrelationships. Children need direct experiences with matching salient sensory features and comparing and contrasting objects, shapes, sounds, weights, and textures as these activities become developmentally appropriate. Direct Experiences FacilitateConcept Development

45. Children with visual impairments may develop motor skills, especially self-initiated movement, at later ages than do typically sighted peers. These delays may limit children�s ability to explore their world and learn about objects and concepts. Children with visual impairments need early experiences to acquire meaning from literacy. Koenig & Holbrook, 2002 Warren & Hatton, 2003 Self-Initiated Movement and Concept Development

46. Some children with visual impairments acquire motor skills in the same way as their sighted peers. Some children with visual impairments, including those with additional disabilities, may exhibit differences in motor skill development or in quality of movement that may indirectly affect literacy development Strickling & Pogrund, 2002 Motor Development

47. These differences in motor development may be due to low postural tone, limited early movement experiences, lack of visual motivation for movement, and inadequate cognitive mapping. Strickling & Pogrund, 2002 Differences in Motor Development

48. Children with severe low vision or blindness sometimes display differences in the rate or sequence of motor development that may impact emergent literacy development. For example, children with blindness develop goal-directed movement later than their sighted peers, which impacts their independent access to literacy experiences. Strickling & Pogrund, 2002 Differences in Motor Skill Development

49. Strickling and Pogrund (2002) list and describe the following differences in quality of movement: Low muscle tone in the trunk Decreased balance Repetitive head movements Unstable shoulder girdle Limited hand rotation Fisting Differences in Quality of Movement

50. Physical and occupational therapists, along with professionals from other relevant disciplines, should be involved in planning and implementing appropriate motor interventions. With appropriate interventions and support, motor differences may not impede literacy development. Collaboration to Support Motor Development

51. Nagaishi (1993) recommends using shoulder slings to carry infants so they can experience adults� movement while positioned comfortably and appropriately; giving infants opportunities to experience a variety of positions, particularly on the stomach; and using daily routines such as bath time, diaper changing, playtime, etc. to learn about body parts and their movements. Facilitating Movement

52. Nagaishi (1993) also recommends enjoying gentle roughhousing; creating obstacle courses for older infants; providing auditory or tactile cues to motivate infants with VI to raise their heads; providing infants with large objects to hold with both hands; and providing opportunities for children to develop finger and hand strength, wrist rotation, and isolating the index finger through activities such as making bread dough. Facilitating Movement and Hand Use

53. Motor development is influenced by the quality of sensory messages and the integrating function of the central nervous system (CNS). Sensorimotor activities can be used to enhance the motor function of children with visual impairments. Strickling & Pogrund, 2002 Sensorimotor Intervention

54. Children with visual impairments may have difficulty in interpreting sensory feedback due to the lack of visual information available to the nervous system. The constant and organized sensory input provided in sensorimotor activities makes the CNS more effective, thereby increasing motor function. Strickling & Pogrund, 2002 Sensorimotor Intervention

55. The outdoors provide a sophisticated and unlimited sensory environment where children can practice motor skills. Crawling, climbing, and playing on uneven ground improve balance and agility and strengthen hands, arms, legs, and trunk. Outdoor Play

56. Children can develop motor skills throughout their daily routines. Allowing children to do as much as possible for themselves will encourage them to use, strengthen, and refine motor skills. Caregivers should provide time for children to actively participate in daily routines. Motor Development and Daily Routines

57. Fine motor skills provide the basis for future writing skills. Infants who push up in prone will develop greater hand and arm strength. Promoting Fine Motor Development

58. Crawling can help increase strength and reduce tactile sensitivity. Encourage children to play games that strengthen hands and fingers. Promoting Fine Motor Development

59. Accessible Emergent Literacy Environments The appropriateness, accessibility, and number of literacy resources within environments enhance literacy modeling, caregiver-child interactions, and active exploration. Environments may need to be adapted for children with visual impairments so that they have equal access and opportunities for developing emergent literacy.

60. Accessible Emergent Literacy Experiences Children need to be directly involved in the daily literacy activities of their family members, such as reading newspapers, making grocery lists, and retrieving/replacing story books. Additionally, children should have access to books and writing materials in appropriate media.

61. All children, regardless of severity of disabilities, should have appropriate and accessible emergent literacy experiences. Children With Multiple Disabilities

62. Caregivers should have high literacy expectations. Children should have access to a variety of communication forms (e.g., print, braille, assistive technology). Families and children should read storybooks together often. Koppenhaver, Erickson, Harris, McLellan, Skotko, & Newton, 2001 Promoting Literacy of Children With Multiple Disabilities

63. When children have multiple disabilities, parents may not rank early literacy as a priority because their time is spent attending to their children�s basic care and physical needs. Early interventionists should help families and caregivers understand that emergent literacy can be integrated into daily routines that do not require additional time. Marvin, 1994 Literacy Expectations

64. AAC refers to using devices or techniques to facilitate children�s expressive or receptive communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

65. When children have delayed speech, AAC can increase communication and facilitate emergent literacy. AAC includes unaided modes of communication such as body language, gestures, sign language, and facial expressions; and high- or low-tech devices that require children to use their bodies to activate tools for communication. Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC)

66. Other assistive technology can also increase children�s participation in emergent literacy experiences. For example, some children may require a device to help hold a book or a special chair to stabilize their body. Simple modifications to common emergent literacy activities, such as attaching a plastic clothespin to the page of a book so that children can turn the pages themselves, can greatly enhance experiences for children with disabilities. Koppenhaver, 2000 Assistive Technology

67. Families and caregivers are important collaborators because they provide specific information about their children that might not be available to professionals. Speech-language pathologists help identify children�s communication and literacy needs. Physical and occupational therapists can support children�s positioning, movement, and motor development to facilitate emergent literacy. Teaming

68. Teachers of children with visual impairments (TVIs) can assess sensory use to identify literacy media and strategies for providing accessible activities. Early intervention teams should use all of these resources to develop and implement emergent literacy interventions. Teaming

69. Play Literacy routines Responsive environments Shared storybook reading Dialogic reading Storybook preview Storybook sounds Storytelling Dialogue/conversation Evidence-BasedLiteracy Interventions

70. Children who cannot see the toys that are around them or what other children are doing will be less motivated to play. Families and early interventionists can take a proactive approach to facilitating play in young children with visual impairments by using recommended practices and evidence-based strategies from early childhood special education. Malone & Langone, 1999; Raab, 2003 Sandall et al., 2005 Play and Children With Visual Impairments

71. Young children with visual impairments often spend a disproportionate amount of time in solitary play or unoccupied, prefer interactions with adults to interactions with peers, have reduced mobility outdoors, and have fewer opportunities for higher-level interactive play. Erwin,1993; Kekelis, 1992; McGaha & Farran, 2001 Parsons, 1986; Preisler, 1993; Tait, 1972b Play and Children With Visual Impairments

72. Young children with visual impairments may prefer gross-motor toys (e.g., push-em carts, rocking horses) and have delays in symbolic play that diverge increasingly from that of sighted children as they get older. Fraiberg, 1977; Parsons, 1986 Rogers & Puchalski, 1984 Skellenger, Rosenblum, & Jager, 1997 Tr�ster & Brambring, 1994 Play and Children With Visual Impairments

73. Shared teacher-child play interventions may increase the play skills of young children with blindness. Shared Teacher-Child Play Intervention

74. Many emergent literacy interventions can be encouraged through play. Play is process oriented, not product oriented. Children learn through the process of playing, not by creating a product or accomplishing a task. McLane & McNamee, 1991 Roskos, Christie, & Richgels, 2003 Play-Based Emergent Literacy Interventions

75. Play-based interventions include playing simple interactive games, such as �up and down� and �horsey� that share positive affect, teach body and spatial concepts, and turn-taking. monitoring children�s subtle cues to ascertain their attentional focus and then imitating any action that suggests that the child is interested in an object, activity, sound, etc. Interactive Play Facilitates Emergent Literacy

76. Play-based interventions include modeling object schemas and helping children explore objects� features, introducing objects and toys that may not be available incidentally, and introducing play that involves the whole body to build concepts, such as in and out, and to foster pretend play (e.g., laundry baskets can become boats that children climb into and out of). Play-Based Emergent Literacy Interventions

77. Play-based interventions include providing structured play opportunities with peers to acquire social skills and to learn cooperative play (e.g., sand and water tables, block building areas, tea sets, dress-up areas); providing pretend props, such as dress-up clothes, phones, and purses to encourage early pretend and symbolic play; and encouraging children to act out stories they read. Promoting Emergent Literacy Through Play

78. Recchia (1997) and Rettig (1994) suggest facilitating play by following the lead of children, rather than being directive. resisting the temptation to constantly present things to children in order to entertain them. maintaining a positive and playful attitude so that children know that play is fun. being flexible and allowing children to interact with toys in different ways and in different contexts. Promoting Child-Directed Play

79. Recchia (1997) and Rettig (1994) also suggest limiting the number of initial play partners. considering the sensory qualities of toys and the purposes for which they can be used. encouraging symbolic play with dolls, stuffed animals, and toy cars through specific feedback about how toys feel and work. facilitating young children�s developing sense of self (i.e., autonomy) by encouraging exploration and play with symbolic toys such as dolls. Play-Based Emergent Literacy Interventions

80. Literacy-enriched play is an evidence-based intervention that embeds literacy tools in children�s dramatic play settings to facilitate emergent literacy. When literacy props and resources, such as cookbooks, notepads, pens, menus, coupons, and empty food containers/boxes, are available to children, they tend to naturally integrate them into their play. Justice & Pullen, 2003 Murphy, 2005a Literacy-Enriched Play

81. Social pretend-play facilitates the development of oral language, including narrative knowledge. During pretend-play, children collaborate with others to develop proto-narratives. Narratives are formed as children discuss storylines, roles, props, etc. Caregivers can support children�s written and oral narrative development by scaffolding and including literacy tools in the play environment. Howes & Wishard, 2004 Social-Pretend Play

82. Lawhon and Cobb describe a literacy routine as �the regular use of a variety of techniques to enhance children�s abilities to listen, to observe, to imitate, and to develop their language, reading, and writing skills� (2002, p. 113). Often, literacy routines are integrated into the context of daily routines. Routines-Based Literacy

83. For infants and young toddlers Imitating infants� babbling Talking about daily routines and events Reading aloud For toddlers and young preschoolers Exposing them to new words Sharing books with them Sharing nursery rhymes Providing print-rich environments Early Literacy Routines

84. Vivian and her mother have an established reading routine. The mother turns the pages and reads the text. Vivian uses her switch to activate the animal noises in her book. Routines Are Essential

85. Responsive literacy environments include experiences in which children observe adults modeling literate behaviors, experiences in which children interact with adults in reading and writing activities, and experiences in which children explore literacy actively. Teale & Sulzby, 1986 Responsive Literacy Environments

86. Children with low vision may not see details and therefore may not understand the activity. Caregivers can assist children by talking about their reading and writing activities and by letting children explore materials physically while they talk about what they are doing.� Ideally, parents of potential braille readers will learn braille as soon as possible so they can model braille reading and writing to their children. Modeling Literacy

87. Literacy sharing that occurs regularly during daily routines provides opportunities to scaffold children�s learning. For totally blind toddlers, caregivers may have to provide physical contact with literacy tools. For children with low vision, parents may have to position children so they can see literacy tools (e.g., paper, pens). Caregivers should use large print and high contrast. Sharing Literacy

88. When children share literacy experiences with caregivers with whom they have positive relationships, they begin to associate reading and writing activities with enjoyable social interactions. IRA & NAEYC, 1998 Ortiz, Stowe, & Arnold, 2001 Rosenkoetter & Barton, 2002 Sharing Literacy

89. Children need opportunities to explore reading and writing resources. Children with visual impairments may not have access to appropriate literacy materials. In addition to having access to a variety of books in appropriate literacy media, children with visual impairments should have easy access to a variety of writing, drawing, scribbling, and painting materials. Actively Exploring Literacy

90. Print writing materials include pens, pencils, markers, crayons, paint, paper, chalk, and chalkboard. Braille writing materials include braillewriters and slate-and-styluses, screen boards, and tools that can be used to scribble with raised lines and raised dots. Caregivers should not be concerned about how children hold writing utensils or what types of marks they make. Children should simply be encouraged to play with writing materials. Koenig & Holbrook, 2002 Actively Exploring Writing

91. If the primary literacy medium has not been determined, children should have equal exposure to print- and braille-writing tools. Even children with no light perception will benefit from some early print-writing experiences because they will need to sign their names in the future. They will also need an awareness of the activities of their sighted siblings and peers. Accessible Experiences

92. Shared storybook reading is evidence based, family centered, child centered, and developmentally appropriate. Shared Storybook Reading

93. Shared storybook reading helps children acquire oral language, phonological awareness, concept development, knowledge of the conventions of print/braille and of print/braille intentionality, and alphabetic knowledge. Shared Storybook Reading

94. Print Motivation When young children are read to frequently, they begin to associate books with positive feelings such as amusement, comfort, and closeness. These feelings produce print motivation. IRA & NAEYC, 1998

95. Print motivation refers to children�s relative interest in reading and writing activities. Children with high print motivation become avid readers. Print Motivation

96. 0-6 months: books with simple, large pictures printed on stiff cardboard, cloth, or vinyl 6-12 months: books with photos of other babies, familiar objects, or family photos on sturdy pages for touching and tasting; vinyl or plastic for bath time, cuddling, and mouthing Developmentally Appropriate Books for Print Readers

97. 12-24 months: books with pictures of children in familiar routines and books about animals; preferably with few words per page, with simple rhymes or predictable text; sturdy books they can carry 24-36 months: books with simple stories; books about counting, letters, shapes, and sizes; and books about favorite literary or TV characters Developmentally Appropriate Books for Print Readers

98. Favorite books provide the comfort of a familiar story and facilitate learning. In very young children, the predictability of a favorite book may build story schemas (i.e., narrative knowledge). Understanding narrative schemas helps children appreciate a wider variety of books. As children age, a decrease in favorite books may reflect an increase in cognitive abilities. S�n�chal & LeFevre , 2001 The Role of Favorite Books

99. Read to children frequently. Select a time when the child is happy. Read in a comfortable location. Read in a dramatic voice that makes the book exciting. Read only for as long as the child is interested�a few minutes is OK. BrainWonders, 2001a Shared Storybook Tips

100. Let children help turn the pages, even if a few pages are skipped. Point to the print or run fingers over the braille as the book is read. Discuss pictures, illustrations, and story objects. Relate the book to children�s and family�s experiences. BrainWonders, 2001a Shared Storybook Tips

101. Young children with frequent access to a wide variety of books have stronger vocabulary skills. Later, these skills facilitate reading comprehension. S�n�chal & LeFevre , 2001 Access to Books

102. Children who are read to frequently acquire new concepts about the world around them (i.e., schemas). Children who have many schemas are able to enjoy books more easily. Shared Storybook Readingand Concepts About the World

103. Shared storybook reading with caregivers is also one of the first and most important book experiences of children with visual impairments. Shared Storybook Reading and Visual Impairments

104. Caregivers of children with visual impairments may not be motivated to read to their children, because they are unsure about how to introduce books or because they are overwhelmed with other concerns. Certain cultures may not value storybook reading. Craig, 1996 Caregiver Priorities

105. Children who read braille rarely have as many braille books as children with typical sight have standard print books. Braille books may intimidate caregivers because they do not know braille. Caregivers may be unaware of sources of braille books and believe braille books and materials cost too much. Access to Braille

106. Print/braille books can be purchased or borrowed. Objects can be used to enhance stories. Braille can be added to the pages of print books. Textures can be added to pictures. Tactile symbols can be placed on books� covers for identification. Supporting Children Who Will Be Braille Readers

107. Object Books Adapt books for children with visual impairments by adding objects Involve children in making object books Use three-ring binders Use objects that are meaningful to children Use one object per page Use hot glue to attach the objects Add braille Add objects to book covers Smith, Shafer, & Sewell, 2002

108. Expose children to books with varying text sizes Optimize lighting conditions Reduce glare Select books with simple drawings and bright illustrations Provide opportunities to explore books using dome magnifiers and CCTVs Supporting ChildrenWho Will Be Print Readers

109. Caregivers should encourage children to explore books (discovering that books have covers, fronts and backs, and tops and bottoms). Caregivers should also model reading from top to bottom and from left to right. A child who is learning braille can be encouraged to take a �piggy back ride� on the caregivers� hands to feel movement of braille reading. Conventions of Print

110. It may be more difficult for children with visual impairments to learn that a story is expressed through print or braille symbols in a book. When children are older and it seems developmentally appropriate, stop reading braille when the child stops tracing the braille so that the child learns that the braille dots represent words that tell the story. Caregivers should also point out and discuss specific words of interest. Print Intentionality

111. Encourage active engagement in storybook reading by asking children to discuss stories; relate stories to their own experiences; and point to and label objects, words, and letters. Ferrell, 1996 Rosenkoetter & Barton, 2002 Communication During Shared Storybook Reading

112. Dialogic reading is a shared-reading technique in which the adult assumes the role of an active listener and the child learns to become a storyteller. In dialogic reading, adult readers ask questions, add information, and prompt children in order to increase the sophistication of descriptions of material in the book. Children�s responses are encouraged through praise and repetition. Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998 Dialogic Reading

113. Dialogic reading has been shown, in a variety of circumstances, to produce greater effects on children�s language skills than a similar amount of typical picture book reading in which children listen passively. Whitehurst & Lonigan, 1998 Dialogic Reading

114. Dialogic Reading Parents trained in dialogic reading enjoy the technique and say they plan to continue using it. Parents reported enjoying the closeness and positive interactions with their children and appreciated the way dialogic reading facilitated their children�s learning as well as their motivation to learn. Huebner, 2000

115. Prompt the child to comment on the book Evaluate the child�s reply by responding to it Expand the child�s response by paraphrasing and elaborating on it Repeat the expansion through a second prompt Whitehurst, 2004 Dialogic Reading: PEER

116. Completion prompts Recall prompts Open-ended prompts Wh- prompts Distancing prompts Whitehurst, 2004 Dialogic Reading: CROWD

117. Dialogic Reading: CROWD Completion prompts are used mainly with rhyming or repetitive stories. A blank is left at the end of a sentence, which children may fill in. Recall prompts ask children to describe something that happened in a story. Recall prompts can be used in the middle of a story or, if a child has read the book previously, before beginning to read. Whitehurst, 2004

118. Open-ended prompts help facilitate problem solving and expressive fluency. Open-ended prompts should begin with words such as "why" and "how" or phrases such as "What do you think about�?" Open-ended questions may be about the storyline, tactile illustrations, pictures, or accompanying objects. Whitehurst, 2004 Dialogic Reading: CROWD

119. Wh- prompts begin with who, what, when, where, why, or how and are used to build vocabulary. Like open-ended prompts, they may refer to storyline, tactile illustrations, pictures, or accompanying objects. Distancing prompts ask children to relate the pictures and events in stories to their own experiences. Whitehurst, 2004 Dialogic Reading: CROWD

120. Storybook preview is the shared exploration of the content of a book without consideration of the storyline. Children are given the opportunity to label or describe the illustrations of interest, ask questions, and make comments to increase narrative knowledge and vocabulary. Caregivers identify and scaffold children�s communicative attempts. McCathren & Allor, 2002 Storybook Preview

121. Storybook sounds is an intervention that focuses on the development of phonological awareness ( the ability to detect and manipulate the sound structures of oral language). During shared storybook reading, caregivers point out rhyming words or initial sounds. If children show an interest, caregivers can make up games to reinforce phonological concepts. McCathren & Allor, 2002 Storybook Sounds

122. Provide opportunities for toddlers to repeat rhyming words. Select books that involve rhyming patterns, such as Brown and Hurd (1947), Goodnight Moon Degan (1983), Jamberry Fleming (1991), In the Small, Small Pond Kirk (1999), Little Miss Spider Martin and Radunsky (1994), The Maestro Plays Murphy, 2005c Building Sound Awareness

123. Engage in word play involving alliteration (e.g., �Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers�) and rhyme (e.g., �The cat wore a hat as he sat on the mat with his friend the gnat�). �Recite or sing Mother Goose rhymes such as �Jack Sprat� and �This Little Piggy.� Rhymes that include movement and gestures, such as �Pat-a-Cake� and �The Wheels on the Bus,� are even more captivating to young children. Murphy, 2005c Building Sound Awareness

124. Read poetry with vivid rhymes. Sing songs that play with language, such as �Old MacDonald Had a Farm� and �Bingo.� Some toddlers enjoy listening to Raffi�s song �Eat, Eat, Eat Apples and Bananas.� This song repeats the same four words over and over, but changes the vowel sounds (�It, it, it ipples and bininis�). Murphy, 2005c Building Sound Awareness

125. Play with syllables of words by setting nursery rhymes to music, using different notes for each syllable. Caregivers can model breaking down words by singing the rhymes slowly, singing them fast, and clapping out the syllables. Tapping with percussion instruments, such as sand blocks, cymbals, and drums, while singing can also help young children become aware of syllables. Murphy, 2005c Building Sound Awareness

126. Children who are told stories, whether fictional ones or ones based on real-life experiences, gain familiarity with decontextualized language. For example, a parent who has just come home from work uses decontextualized language to describe what happened at the office earlier in the day. Storytelling

127. Decontextualized language is the expression of ideas and concepts that are removed from the immediate situation or physical context. Exposure to decontextualized language facilitates children�s ability to recall events, make predictions, ask and answer questions, and problem-solve. Bardige & Segal, 2004 Decontextualized Language

128. Shared Storytelling Shared storytelling facilitates narrative development, specifically children�s ability to use decontextualized language and to tell a story with a beginning, middle, and end. Shared storytelling is a short exchange between a child and a caregiver in which the caregiver tries to elicit a story from the child. Murphy, 2005d

129. Step 1: Caregiver as storyteller The caregiver tells a simple narrative. Example: Caregiver says, �Once, when I visited a petting zoo, I saw a llama. It came toward me and made a funny sound that sounded like this: �Uuuh!�� Murphy, 2005d Shared Storytelling Steps

130. Step 2: Caregiver as facilitator After telling the story, the caregiver asks, �Has anything like that ever happened to you?� Example: Caregiver asks, �Have you ever been to a petting zoo? What animals did you touch? What else did you do?� Murphy, 2005d Shared Storytelling Steps

131. Step 3: Caregiver as listener/interpreter The child tells a story. Example: Child says, �Pig. I see pig with my mommy. So big!� Murphy, 2005d Shared Storytelling Steps

132. Step 4: Caregiver as facilitator The caregiver uses prompts to help the story unfold, such as restating, paraphrasing, or asking wh- or open-ended questions. Example: Caregiver says, �You saw a big pig with your mommy?� �You went on a trip with your mommy and saw a big pig?� or �What did the pig sound like? What else did you see?� Murphy, 2005d Shared Storytelling Steps

133. Step 5: Caregiver as listener The child builds on the narrative. Example: Child says, �The pig was loud. . . . Uh-oh . . . too big. I�m big.� Murphy, 2005d Shared Storytelling Steps

134. Other techniques to facilitate narrative development include discussing children�s daily experiences, thinking out loud, using pictures and objects to sequence the daily schedule, and encouraging others to share stories. Murphy, 2005d Facilitating Narrative Development

135. Other techniques to facilitate narrative development include modeling who, when, and what questions; using art materials to support children�s storytelling; providing children with props to act out stories; and playing show-and-tell games. Murphy, 2005d Facilitating Narrative Development

136. Young children who are exposed to a wide variety of words in meaningful conversation learn new words each day. When adults use a wider variety of descriptive language, children pick up on words and learn their meaning in appropriate contexts. Bardige & Segal, 2004 Dialogue/Conversation

137. Children with larger vocabularies become better readers and writers as preschoolers. Children exposed to decontextualized language often become more adept learners in elementary school. Bardige & Segal, 2004 Dialogue/Conversation