Historical Foundations of Physical Education

1. Historical Foundations of Physical Education Why study the history of anything?

2. Why History of Physical Education? • What does history tell us in general? • What difference has history made to present day events? • What influence does history have in decision making for leaders in various fields, professions or disciplines? • What can history do to help “me” in the field of Physical Education?

3. Historical Perspective • History is the study of change or lack of change over periods of time. • In physical education, historical perspective provides teachers and students with an appreciation of our field and how it has evolved from areas such as survival skills, medicine and war.

4. Sport, Games & Play • What are the differences among these three terms and/or concepts? • Is there a hierarchy among the three concepts?

5. Play • Not serious • Free activity standing outside ordinary life, may be intense depending on participants • Absorbing • No material interest • Has it’s own boundaries and/or limitations • Can form social groups • Amusements engaged in freely, for fun, and devoid of constraints

6. Games • Somewhat more organized than play • Has playful elements • Explicit rules • Boundaries which can be flexible • Sequence of actions that are essentially repeatable • Generally rules are agree upon by participants prior to beginning • Usually implying winners and losers, can range from simple diversions to competitions with significant outcomes governed by rules

7. Recreation • Refreshes or renews one’s strength and spirit after toil • Can be with or without physical activity

8. Exercise • …To participate, to strengthen, or to condition through physical activity

9. Athletics • Organized • Highly structured • Governed by rules • Competitive activities • Skilled participants

10. Physical Education • A process through which an individual obtains optimal physical, mental, and social skills and fitness through physical activity. (Lumkin, 1994)

11. Physical Education & Sport • Their purpose is to optimize quality of life through a long-term commitment to enjoyable physical activity and sport experiences that will meet varied needs in a changing world. (Lumpkin, 1994)

12. Primitive times & Survival Sport • Survival was the basic aim of all education in primitive society • Skills of an individual were developed for the good of the group. • Adult competitions came about as a form of recreation and to determine the most effective hunters and fighters.

13. Primitive times & Survival Sport How would you characterize the influence of the Primitive culture on the development of Physical Education?

14. Ancient China • Early period of education included physical activity but it did not last as China took on an Isolationist policy. • Early versions of soccer, wrestling and archery were evident in their history. • Cong Fu was a program of exercises devoted to prevention of disease through physical activity. • Dance was popular both for ritual and recreation.

15. Ancient Egypt • This was one of the earliest cultures to provide women with equal opportunities. • Education was primarily for occupational reasons such as learning a trade. • Physical Education was of little importance since Egypt was not militarily oriented. • Egyptians enjoyed sport and games and had a great love of dance.

16. Ancient Middle East • Primarily a military focus in the culture. • What impact did the concept of military training have on the general education and physical activity levels in the ancient China, Egypt and the Middle East?

17. Ancient Greece: The Golden Age of “Pure” Physical Education and Sport • Early accounts suggest that “Games” were religious activities that surrounded funeral rites. • Foot racing, boxing, wrestling and chariot races were the common forms of competition. • Physical Education was geared toward the use of weapons and hand-to-hand combat techniques.

18. Spartan Education • Spartan culture and life was primarily military in nature. • Weak children were abandoned in the wilderness to die. • Education for males was focused on their readiness for military service. • Female education revolved around preparation for childbirth and motherhood. • Dance was encouraged as a means of physical conditioning and to honor the gods.

19. Athenian Education • The motto “a sound mind in a sound body” stresses the goal of education. • Schools were for men and women were educated at home. • “Gymnasium” is the Greek word for “naked” and was the name given to a training school for males. • “Palestra” was a small training school for wrestling and the physical training teacher was called a “paidotribe,” the original physical education teacher or coach.

20. Olympics • The term “Olympiad” means a four-year period. • The first recorded Olympics were in 776 B.C. • “pax Olypmia” referred to the month-long treaty or truce that surrounded the games. • The festival of Hera was held every four years to allow for competition among women of Greece.

21. Ancient Olympic Games • The first presence of a “coaches handbook” on training was in the third century B.C. • Amateurism versus Professionalism was never an issue in the ancient form of the games. • The ancient games came to an end in 394 B.C. because they were considered a form of pagan worship by the Roman Christian rulers of the time.

22. The Roman Empire • Training for males was directed entirely toward preparation for the military. • Women were considered more important in the Roman culture than the Greek culture. • Roman civilization quickly became a nation of spectators as the empire grew and they conquered surrounding nations.

23. Roman Sport • Roman viewed sport in two ways: • Military training • Entertainment • Roman culture used the concept of “sport” as a means to entertainment to the point where they used captured slaves as the competitors or “Gladiators.” • “spectacle is the opiate of the masses” • The ideal of sport and competition for the joy of competing was lost to the concept of winning in order to survive during the Roman Empire.

24. Medieval & Renaissance Times It is reported that there was a revival of athletic tournament during this period so that Knights could maintain a level of fitness and refine skills for battle. The Crusades were the reason that the Catholic Church accepted physical training again.

25. Physical Education and Catholicism Roman Catholic Church was opposed to physical education for three reasons: • it considered the Roman character that resulted from sport and games to be undesirable • the Roman style games were considered pagan due to their relationship with honoring the gods • the church believed that the emphasis on development of the body was evil in nature.

26. Class struggles and sport issues • Upper classes were primarily the participants in sport and games activities. • Lower classes were generally not permitted to compete and did not have the time to train in order to be competitive. • How would you compare this with today’s perceptions of sports and participation in sports?

27. Revolutionary War Colonists organized and attempted to fight against the British forces for independence. It quickly became apparent that colonial life was not adequately rigorous to prepare them for life as a soldier in war. Skills used in earlier colonial life we limited to the job skills of the individuals.

28. Early Colonial period Frontier life had hunting, tracking and survival skills as their basis. Indians shared my skills with new settlers as the move west continued. Male Indians played a game called Beggataway which meant “game of ball” that was similar to current day Lacrosse. Females played a game with sticks that eventually became Field Hockey. The topic of Hygiene was taught primarily by Physicians during this period.

29. The Rebirth of the Olympic Games • A variety of activities and competitions contributed to the revival of the modern Olympics. • The continued efforts of many individuals culminated in 1896 when the games organized by Pierre de Coubertin and held in Athens, Greece. • Olympics through history • Olympic History • 10 points to remember!

30. 19th & 20th Centuries • George Hengel and Karl Marx were prominent political figures who influenced trends in education. • They both believed that every individual needed to be strong enough to be a “contributing member of society.” • Marxism and Socialism contributed to the incorporation of exercise and physical activity as staples in the education of all citizens.

31. 19th & 20th Centuries • The late 1800’s and into the 1900’s researchers began to study the effects of strength training and the measurement of increased level of fitness on participants in various programs. • This signaled the beginning of our modern concepts of fitness and strength training as structured programs rather that arbitrary results. • Two systems of German exercise battled for prominence in early school Physical Education programs: the Turner and Swedish systems of exercise for physical training.

32. The Birth of Modern Organized Sport • Stages of development of organized sport (1850-1900): • Growth of University and school sports; • Popularity of sports both for participants and spectators; • Development of sports clubs; • National organizations organized and sponsored national championships; • Common national and international rules were written; • Records were kept in sports where it was appropriate.

33. 1900-1930 The Uneasy Joining of PE & Sport • Non school sports were first on the scene and created an interest for the physical education curriculum and fueled the growth of intramural sport activities. • Influences on sport and athletics in schools and colleges: • 1905 development of the NCAA • 1922 establishment of the national federation of high school sports • The “New Physical Education of the 1920’s that saw sports incorporated into the PE curriculum.

34. 1900-1930 The Uneasy Joining of PE & Sport • Rapid growth of women’s competitive sports. • Popularity of competitive intramurals as an established portion of the college and school programming. • Games and sports became a standard portion of the general physical education curriculum. • Physical Education gradually shifted its’ focus from health and wellness to sports and games and this created a need for the preparation of teachers who were more “athletically inclined” rather than focused on a medical and formal gymnastics background.

35. World War I • War-related injuries brought about an increased need for physical rehabilitation programs. • This was the birth of physical therapy and the belief that through exercise the body could be restored, a Chinese approach evident many centuries earlier.

36. Early Fitness Testing • Roger’s Strength Index and Physical Fitness Index was a general motor fitness test that measured: balance, flexibility, agility, strength, power, and endurance items. • Fitness testing became part of physical education curriculum at the college level. • Wartime training tests demonstrated the need for additional fitness and health emphasis.

37. Early Fitness Testing • Kraus-Weber Test was used to conduct a comparison between the fitness levels of children in Europe and the United States in the 1950’s. • Low scores eventually led to the establishment of the President’s Council on Physical Fitness during the Kennedy Administration.

38. Founding of our national association • 1885 Adelphi Academy held to discuss common interest in physical activity and development. • Edward Hitchcock and Dudley Sargent led discussions concerning the present and future of the fields of fitness and physical education.

39. Founding of our national association • 1885 at this conference the creation of the Association for the Advancement of Physical Education signaled a national interest in the subject area. • The objective of this association was “to disseminate knowledge concerning physical education, to improve methods, and by meetings of the members to bring those interested in the subject into closer relation to each other.”

40. Various Names of the National Organization • 1885 Association for the Advancement of Physical Education • 1886 American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education • 1903 American Physical Education Association • 1937 American Association for Health and Physical Education • 1938 American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation • 1974 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education and Recreation • 1979 American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance.

41. Mid-Twentieth Century1930-1970 The Great Depression saw Physical Education in schools as an expensive “frill” and many programs were dropped. Intramural sports programs grew at the expense of interscholastic programs due to increased participation at a reduced cost to the schools.

42. Mid-Twentieth Century1930-1970 • Recreation expanded during the Great Depression for two reasons: • Unemployment created increased leisure time • The government created jobs programs that focused on the construction and development of recreational facilities including public parks for playing games as well as outdoor leisure pursuits. • Women’s sports suffered because women administrators held back the development of women’s programs due to the fear they would suffer from examples set by the men’s programs.

43. Fitness and Sport in War and Peace 1941-1970 • During the initial draft for WWII, 45% of the draftees were rejected for physical or mental reasons. • The government immediately saw the need to address health and fitness issues among the general population. • The government created the Division of Physical Fitness.

44. Fitness and Sport in War and Peace 1941-1970 • Physical Education programs focused on physical fitness and were oriented toward preparation of students for military needs. • Numerous attempts were made to create comprehensive fitness tests that could be administered to prepare individuals for military service when needed.

45. Fitness and Sport in War and Peace 1941-1970 • A significant wartime gain was that many states went from “recommended” to “required” physical education programs in the school curriculum. • Post WW II saw the return of the Olympic Games in 1948 and this brought about an international consciousness and cooperation regarding sports and physical education.

46. Fitness and Sport in War and Peace 1941-1970 • 1953 Kraus-Weber Test results suggest that European children were at a higher level of fitness • 1955 President Eisenhower created the Council on Youth Fitness • 1958 AAHPER published their first Youth Fitness Test Battery. • 1961 President Kennedy created the President’s Council on Youth Fitness.

47. Fitness and Sport in War and Peace 1941-1970 • Kennedy’s efforts to infuse more fitness-oriented activities and sports into schools curriculum was the first non-war effort supported by upper levels of government. • The launch of Sputnik satellite by Russia signaled the start of the “Cold War” and created a new reason to investigate the fitness level of our population. • 1946 Jackie Robinson was the first black professional athlete.

48. An Era of Great Changes(1970-2000) • Olympics became a stage for political statements and activities. • 1968 Mexico Olympics saw riots and demonstrations. • 1972 Munich games resulted in the murder of Israeli athletes by Arab extremists. • 1976 Olympics athletes raised their hands in tribute to “Black Power.” • 1980 games in Moscow boycotted by the United States Team. • 1984 Olympics held in Los Angeles were boycotted by the Soviet Block countries.

49. An Era of Great Changes(1970-2000) • “Big time” college sports were viewed negatively as “sports for the few” and students began to demand money be put back into intramural programs and club sports. • The growth of professional sports and television sports turned the nation into a nation of spectators and youth began to imitate “role models” rather than the more traditional individuals from neighborhoods.

50. Changing Professional Emphasis (1970-2000) • War in Southeast Asia brought a renewed interest in the role of Physical Education in school curriculum. • The general educational movement was toward students having more choices in curriculum and individual class offerings.