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Explore the motives behind American expansion from the 1880s, the concept of Manifest Destiny, and the rise of imperialism post-independence. Discover the economic, political, and cultural factors influencing overseas expansion after the Civil War.
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Previous Expansion • Expansion after Independence: Appalachian Mts., Louisiana Purchase, Florida… • Manifest Destiny of 1840s: “Sea to Shining Sea”; Polk: Texas, Oregon, Mexican Cession: Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; Gadsden Purchase….Far West / Great Plains • Imperialist, but Continental, not overseas • Tradition of non-intervention / isolation overseas… Washington, Hamilton, Jefferson…yet War of 1812 and then Monroe Doctrine of 1823 (hands off warning to Europe/in return US would not intervene in Europe)
Motives for Overseas Expansion after the Civil War • 1. Cultural Imperialism • Racial Superiority: Superiority Complex: White Man’s Burden (Kipling): responsibility to civilize and Christianize, bring Progressive reforms (Progressive Imperialism) • Rev. Josiah Strong combined White Man’s Burden, Social Gospel, and Social Darwinism in his book Our Country: It’s Possible Future and its Present Crisis (1885)
2. Economic (and Social) Imperialism • Raw Materials, but esp. Markets for goods: huge overproduction / surplus in industry and agriculture in the US in decades after Civil War; opportunities for investments (land, farming / fruit, transportation, (Panama Canal), utilities (electricity) ….find raw materials / resources (coal, oil….)..exploit resources • Prevent more Depressions such as the ones in 1873, 1893.. • Outlet for Social Unrest: Frederick Jackson Turner; The Turner Thesis: with the closing of the frontier (1890) a new outlet for land was needed for the discontented farmers and workers; need for a new “safety valve”
3. Political Imperialism • To achieve Great Nation Status an overseas empire was necessary (like Britain, France…) • Social Darwinism: inevitability and naturalness of strong nations dominating weak • A strong Navy – another badge of Great Nation status – should be developed to establish and maintain an Overseas Empire…colonies would provide naval bases
Becoming a world power, dominating overseas territories, building a large navy as the best method of expanding overseas – all promoted in Captain Alfred T. Mahan’s book, The Influence of Sea Power on History
Advocates of Imperialism • Rev. Josiah Strong, Missionaries, Preachers • Industrialists: Beveridge • Politicians: Mahan, Lodge, TR: Republican Party • Press: Yellow Journalism / Tabloids: Hearst, Pulitzer
Opponents of Imperialism • Sen. Schurz (Read Documents), Twain, Gompers, Carnegie, Thomas Nast • Their arguments: • Against the Spirit of America, Dec. of Independence…govt. by consent of governed • Dangerous to move away from isolationism…drawn into international wars / conflicts • Navy too small to maintain an empire, and too costly to build up
Racism (racism on either side, for and against imperialism) – US didn’t want contact with inferior groups, didn’t want to absorb inferior peoples • Some Progressives: US was far from perfect – needed more reforms, more Progressivism first
Beginnings of Imperialism…a new aggressive overseas approach Latin America • 1889: Harrison’s Sec. of State James Blaine promoted Economic Imperialism in Latin America (his “Big Sister Policy”): organized a Pan American Congress – hoped to bully Latin American into favorable trade arrangements: but delegates from the 19 countries in attendance refused to agree to an inter American customs union, fearing US dominance
Samoa • Used as a “way station” (stop-over – refuel, re-supply) by US ships, naval and commercial • Treaty with Samoa in 1879 gave the US the port of Pago Pago as a naval station, and gave the US the right to intervene to settle differences between Samoa and foreign powers • Dispute between US, Britain, Germany over control of Samoa almost led to war: avoided through 1889 agreement to a tripartite protectorate
Venezuela • 1895: Sec. of State Richard Olney opposed British plans to expand British Guiana at expense of Venezuela (border dispute / gold..); Sec of State Olney aggressively warned Britain about violations of the Monroe Doctrine and insisted on arbitration…(more about the Monroe Doctrine – though US wanted to protect and expand its trade) • Annoyed, the British refused both…Cleveland threatened war…though the US had only 5 warships to Britain’s 35 • Eventually, distracted by disputes with Germany, the British agreed to arbitration – and got most of what they wanted • For the US, the prestige of the Monroe Doctrine was enhanced…seemed like the British respected it eventually - Latin American nations were grateful to the US for its determination to protect them
Hawaii • A “way” station on route to China and for whaling ships • Sailors and missionaries settled there…saw it as part of the US • Followed by Sugar Plantation owners • Navy hoped to build a base at Pearl Harbor, Oahu • Gradually American Plantation owners dominated economy and politics • 1875: reciprocal trade agreement – US imported Hawaiian sugar without any tariff
1877: Treaty granted US exclusive use of Pearl Harbor as a naval station…US tightened its grip on Hawaii • 1890: McKinley Tariff deprived Hawaiian American planters of their privileged position by removing the duty on all imported sugar (from all/any country), and by paying a subsidy to US sugar producers • Planters felt that they would benefit if the US annexed Hawaii: would get the subsidy and survive economically if they were back under US jurisdiction (like Oregon, California: appeal for annexation) • 1891: the passive King Kal died: succeeded by sister Queen Lil: nationalist, determined to restore the power of the monarchy
1893: American residents staged a revolution against her, charging her with suppression of democracy and corruption: called for protection from the US navy: marines landed and forced her to step down: planters again called for annexation by the US • Outgoing Pres. Harrison signed an annexation agreement / treaty but the Senate refused to ratify it: new Pres. Cleveland also vetoed it: sent delegates to Hawaii to find out if the Queen had popular support or if the majority favored annexation
Conclusion was that the revolution / demand for annexation was a minority / American Sugar Plantation Owner movement: Cleveland withdrew the annexation treaty • Hawaiian Americans bided their time until a pro-Imperialist President emerged • The question of annexing Hawaii touched off the first full-fledged imperialist debate in the US
Spanish-American War • Cubans unsuccessfully tried to overthrow Spanish control in the Ten Year War (1868-1878) • 1895: Cubans staged another revolt against Spanish Imperialism • Spanish responded with a policy of brutality: Valerio “Butcher” Weyler’s set up concentration camps - many Cubans died from diseases in the unsanitary conditions in these camps (some consisted of besieged towns)
US Involvement • US newspapers took a big interest in the war: Pulitzer’s New York World and Hearst’s New York Journal competed for circulation: tried to out-do each other with sensational headlines, scoops, pictures of Spanish atrocities • They hoped the US would become involved – more news, sell more newspapers; Sometimes exaggerated or invented incidents: “You furnish the pictures and I’ll furnish the war (by the US).” Wars sell newspapers • Cuban immigrants on the East Coast of the US also tried to arouse US public sentiment against Spain
Pres. Cleveland refused to send help to the Cubans – rejecting a resolution passed by Congress in 1896 to recognize the justice of the revolt - though he offered to mediate: Spain rejected the offer • Pres. McKinley renewed the offer – also rejected: criticized the “uncivilized and inhuman conduct” of the Spanish • Afraid that this was a signal that the US might intervene to support the Cubans, the Spanish removed Weyler, and indicated they might introduce some kind of self government for Cuba
Two dramatic incidents in Feb. 1898 changed the mind of the US gov. • 1. The de Lome Letter: intercepted and published in Hearst’s New York Journal: Spanish ambassador to Washington called McKinley a weak man and a “bidder for the crowd.” Was considered a national insult: de Lome was forced to resign; US public was outraged: upsurge in anti-Spanish feeling…fuelled by media • 2. Destruction of the US Battleship Maine in Havana Harbor: loss of 260 Marines: sent there in case there was a need to protect American property and lives in Cuba from Spanish attacks / atrocities
Americans jumped to the conclusion that the Spanish were responsible: a hasty inquiry concluded that an external explosion / device had caused the Maine to explode (later inquiry revealed that it was an internal accidental explosion by a boiler in the engine room) • Fuelled by Media headlines - Remember the Maine - war hysteria began to sweep the country: strong demands for the US to declare war on Spain in Cuba to avenge the Maine • McKinley for now decided to ask the Spanish to agree to an armistice, followed by negotiations about a permanent peace, and end to the Concentration Camps
Spanish agreed to end the camps, end hostilities, but no armistice, and no negotiations, and reserved the right to resume the war at any time • McKinley was disappointed and decided to ask Congress for a declaration of war “in the name of humanity” in the “name of civilization” and on behalf of “endangered American interests” • US declared War on Spain in support of Cuba on April 25th 1898.
It was not at first seen as an imperialist war – the US / Congress had no designs on Spanish territories: the Teller Amendment disclaimed any intention on the part of the US to annex Cuba, stating that it was a war to liberate, not to annex… a humanitarian mission….Cuba would get its freedom after the Spanish were driven off • Features of War: • US incompetence; outdated weapons, tactics,… • Rough Riders / voluntary brigade of TR’s, led by Col Leonard Wood • Loss of 460 troops in battle, 5,200 from disease (malaria, typhoid, dysentery, yellow fever, typhoid fever) and food poisoning…… Upton Sinclair, The Jungle • Cuban rebels were the decisive factor in defeat of Spanish • Delay in unifying US navy because of distance: Pacific and Atlantic fleets…….need for an isthmian Canal
Goals changed during the war when Commander Dewey was ordered to attack the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay and occupy the Philippines • US forces were then sent also to occupy Puerto Rico and Guam….the war to liberate Cuba had become a war to strip Spain of all its possessions in the Caribbean • Imperialist advocates in the US were excited: took advantage of the nationalism, patriotism, jingoism during the war to propose the annexation of Hawaii: • Media, Congress and McKinley supported this proposal: Hawaii was annexed / became a US territory in 1898: (not a state until 1959)….first overseas colony
Philippines • Huge debate in the US about what the status of the Philippines should be when the war ended; should it be liberated or should the US annex it / turn it into a colony? ,,,,,,,,,,,,,for Cuba • McKinley did not want to give it back to Spain, yet felt it was not ready to govern itself…if left alone it would fall into anarchy, and also feared that Germany might take it over
Imperialists - Mahan, Lodge, Hay, TR, – supported annexation; argued that; • Would provide economic benefits to the US and a link with the Orient • US missionaries could help Christianize and civilize these primitive people (Benevolent Imperialism) • This could be the beginning of an empire, of becoming a world power • If US didn’t take control, some other country would
Anti-imperialists – Twain, Gompers, Carnegie, Cleveland, Bryan (eventually voted for the treaty as a means of later giving the Philippines its freedom) – argued that • Annexation of Philippines would draw the US into disputes with Russia, Japan, China • Betrayed US principle of government by consent • Would add to immigration, overpopulation problems if Filipinos were admitted to the US
McKinley was swayed by the Imperialists (and the inner voice of his prayers) and instructed delegates at the peace talks to negotiate to buy the Philippines, as well as Puerto Rico and Guam, which would then be annexed and become US territory….goals had changed again • The Treaty of Paris: Spain recognized Cuban independence, and sold the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam to the US for $20m: US Congress ratified the Treaty • Filipino resistance to US annexation was led by Emilio Aguinaldo: felt one imperial power had replaced another: three year war: 4,300 Americans and 50,000 Filipinos killed: US used brutal tactics of Spanish – inc. concentration camps – to defeat the guerilla fighters
Howard Taft app. US governor of Philippines • Announced that his goal was to prepare the Philippines for eventual independence (would not come until 1945/6) • US build roads, bridges, schools: administrative and financial reforms; estd. Public health system (benevolence)…. Philippines would have preferred to do without these and instead be free / independent (India, Gandhi….)
Cuba • US military forces remained in Cuba after the Spanish left • Because of growing Imperialist sentiment in the US the promises of the Teller Amendment were not fulfilled • US Government demanded that the new Cuban constitution make provision for US involvement in Cuban affairs…..(new goals)
Congress passed the Platt Amendment: as a condition of US troops leaving Cuba, Cuba would have to include in its constitution the following provisions: • Cuba would not make any treaties with any foreign country or contract a debt beyond their resources, without the consent of the US • The US had the right to intervene in the internal affairs of Cuba “to preserve life, liberty, property” • Cuba had to give the US a permanent lease of 28,000 acres at Guantanamo Bay to serve as a naval base; to be terminated only by mutual agreement
Cuba had no other option but to agree to the demands: the Platt Amendment turned Cuba into a virtual protectorate (lower level colony) of the US • Cubans felt betrayed: US had not liberated them from Spain, but just replaced the Spanish (as in Philippines): US troops invaded / intervened on many occasions…became a Protectorate • The US built roads, hospitals, schools, reorganized legal, financial, and administrative systems (benevolence)… • US investments increased from $50m to $220m by 1902 (Economic Imperialism….cultural imperialism / playground for rich and famous….until Castro’s revolution in 1959)
Impact of Spanish-American War • The US had become an Imperial / World Power during the “splendid little war” (John Hay) (a colossal “coming- out party”)…Mahan’s “big navalism” seemed vindicated – US navy defeated Spanish navy • Had acquired its first overseas colonies (Hawaii, Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico….Cuba / a Protectorate)….led to much celebration, something that unified North and South after the bitter Civil War: …. • But this would come with responsibilities and commitments – esp. in the Far East • Latin America became suspicious of US intentions / of “Yankee Imperialism”….of what they called America’s “Bad Neighbor Policy” • TR, Taft, Wilson would continue with and expand the Imperialist policies of the McKinley administration
Political cartoon of Uncle Sam after the Spanish-American War, 1988
Insular Cases • One question that arose after the new acquisitions: did the Constitution apply to the new territories? • The Supreme Court’s solution came in the Insular Cases (De Lima v Bidwell, Downey v Bidwell): • The Constitution didn’t automatically follow the flag: it was up to Congress to decide case by case if the new territories had the rights of American citizens…. Not automatic….constitutional rights were not given to any of these territories at this time
China and Open Door • US began to assert itself in Asia around this time as part of the New Imperialism • US was late in taking an interest in trade with China: Britain, Germany, Russia, Japan had a head start – had carved out “spheres of influence” • US now insisted on Open Door in China: all nations freely trading in all parts of China – no specific spheres of influence / partition: no exclusion of any country from any part of China: equal access for all foreign nations
John Hay sent the Open Door notes to foreign countries: they replied asking for certain demands before agreeing: Hay announced that since they hadn’t objected then they were in favor of the new policy • When the US and other countries combined to defeat the Boxer Rebellion (anti-foreign rebellion) in China in 1900, the improved relations after the cooperation led to widespread acceptance of the Open Door policy • Later, Japan accepted this policy in the Root-Takahira Agreement
Imperialist policies of Progressive Presidents; TR, Taft, Wilson: 1902-1917
TR • Strong Imperialist before becoming President: supported ideas of Mahan: as Assistant Sec. of the Navy he favored expanding navy; gave orders to liberate the Philippines • Supported Political Imperialism (Great Nation Status): also believed in ideas of Strong: White Mans’ Burden, humanitarianism….Cultural Imperialism . • And believed in Economic Imperialism….find resources, markets (Supported Open Door in China) • Enjoyed involvement in Foreign Affairs: believed they should be handled exclusively by the President: Modern Presidency again (as with Progressive domestic policies)
Believed an expanded Navy would act as a Big Stick: impress / intimidate nations (esp. Latin America) into accepting US policies / wishes: then force would not be needed– “Speak softly and carry a big stick.”…. But occasionally, force would have to be used…..led to “gunboat diplomacy” or “cowboy diplomacy? • Big Stick at work; Great White Fleet to Japan after Gentleman’s Agreement, 1907…..to intimidate • Advocated Corollary (extension) of the Monroe Doctrine (hands off warning to Europe): now the US would had the right to intervene in / to police the affairs of Latin America
US took the responsibility of intervening in Latin America to make sure debts were paid back to Europe to avoid the need for them to return: “Preventive Intervention” through assistance with creating economic and social stability…collecting debts (taxes, tariffs….) • To prevent “Chronic Wrongdoing” (disorder, chaos, instability, overthrow of govs, intervention by European nations) • He turned Latin America in a virtual protectorate (like Cuba): into a “Yankee Lake” using “gunboat diplomacy” or “cowboy diplomacy”…. In the process the US would civilize, gain economic benefits, and become a Great Power through this new role in Latin America.
1902: sent navy and army to Venezuela to prevent the Germans from invading to collect their debts. • The US offered to mediate when the British, Italians, and Germans complained about non-payment of debts, but then the Germans had gotten impatient and had begun to bomb some Venezuelan ports: • Roosevelt then insisted that the Germans back off and promised to restore economic stability to Venezuela and to oversee the payments of debts.
1904: he sent navy and troops to Haiti, also to stabilize the economy and ensure payments of debts to Europe, to avoid invasion, and to prevent social revolution….then the Dominican Republic • 1906: Roosevelt sent the navy and troops to Cuba, under the Platt Amendment, to prevent the government there from being overthrown. • In general, Latin American countries resented Roosevelt’s / US interference – it became known as the US Bad Neighbor Policy towards Latin America (continuation of policy began with Platt Amend). • His anti imperialist critics in Latin America and in the US accused him of engaging in “Yankee Imperialism”
