Most Influential Leaders in Instructional Technology

1. Most Influential Leaders in Instructional Technology

2. There are too many great and influential leaders in Instructional Technology all over the world. The following theorists are just few of them who contributed much in this field of learning.

3. Ruth Clark Ruth Clark was born in San Francisco, California. Her father was a military man, so the family moved annually. She says that she attended twelve different schools while growing up. (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006) After graduating high school, Clark went on to earn a Bachelors of Arts in Biology and Chemistry, graduating Magna Cum Laude from Immaculate Heart College in 1964. She then went on to earn a Masters of Arts in Biological Chemistry from the Department of Biology at the University of California, Los Angeles in 1966. In 1998, Clark completed her Doctor of Education degree in Instructional Psychology from the School of Education at the University of Southern California. Since graduating from USC, Clark has worked as a Curriculum Developer, a Training Manager, and an Adjunct Professor. She currently serves as President for Clark Training & Consulting where she provides seminars and consulting services to improve organizational performance. She also strives in her everyday work to translate research in instructional psychology for practitioner application. Clark is also the author and/or co-author of five books and numerous articles. She has also won various awards for her seminars and publications.

4. As far as her role thus far in the field of Instructional Technology, Clark says that, “My goal has been to translate valid empirical research into usable guidelines for practitioners. I feel my books written with research scientists such as Richard Mayer and John Sweller are contributions that I personally value the most” (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006). Clark’s work has centered on cognitive methods for designing training as well as media’s application in instruction. The two researchers she cited are well-known in these areas. Richard Mayer has served as a Professor of Psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) since 1975. Mayer’s current research centers on cognition, instruction and technology (Department of Psychology, UCSB, 2003). John Sweller resides at the University of New South Wales, Australia, and has worked since the early 1980s on cognitive load theory (Clark, Nguyen & Sweller, 2006). Evidence-Based Instruction and Cognition Load Theory. In her many articles, presentations and books, Clark addresses the issue of Instructional Technology practitioners incorporating more rapidly research and learning psychology into their design, development, and delivery decisions (Clark, 2003). She says, “I hope we will see a greater accumulation and synthesis of research on learning mechanisms and how to harness learning psychology through Instructional Technology. I believe we will continue to see the impact of globalization on Instructional Technology implementations. I would like to see more precision of our terms and definitions with an emphasis on defining interventions in terms of their psychological mechanisms rather than their surface features” (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006).

5. She cites the separation of research and practitioner communities as the main barrier to evidence-based practice (Clark, 2003). She says, “My hope is that the field is moving more toward evidence-based practice and I have tried to move things in that direction by summarizing the research of the best instructional scientists in my books and seminars” (R.C. Clark, personal communication, February 22, 2006). In the past few years, Instructional Technology has come under fire as being old, obsolete, and ineffective (Gordon & Zemke, 2000). In response to these charges, Clark says, “…the ISD boxes are still relevant and can be profitably populated by new models and techniques drawn from cognitive theories of learning” (Clark, 2002, p. 9). This shift from visible to invisible value in work calls for Instructional Technology to be equally focused on defining and teaching mental processes as observable job procedures (Clark, 2002). In her article, “The e-Learning Edge: Leveraging Interactive Technologies in the Design of Engaging, Effective Learning Experiences,” Lisa Galarneau of New Zealand, cites the work of Clark and Mayer to show how the effective use of media can positively impact learning outcomes (Galarneau, 2004).

6. John P. Bailey • Mr. Bailey was one of the chief designers of Governor Ridge's internationally recognized Link-to-Learn initiative. This five-year $200 million initiative pioneered the innovative approach of community-based networking to ensure that communities benefit from the technology investments made in education. In 2000, Link-to-Learn marked a fundamental shift in policy by transitioning into the three-year $45 million Students Achieving Standards initiative. • The primary goal of this initiative is to measure technologies' impact on teaching and student achievement of the academic standards. In September 1998, Link-to-Learn was rated the nation's best practice in educational technology by the Progress and Freedom Foundation's Digital States report. In January 1999, eSchool News selected Bailey as one of the top 30 most influential people in educational technology. • Bailey also participated in several of Governor Ridge's e-government strategies including the Commonwealth's award-winning portal, PAPowerPort. He coordinated the Department's e-government activities including an infrastructure upgrade and a three-year program to migrate the majority of the Department's business systems to the Web. Several additional online services included: • e-Grants: an electronic commerce application allowing schools to submit and track their grant applications via the Web.

7. e-TechPlanner: A Web-based planning tool designed to assist schools with developing, budgeting, implementing, and managing comprehensive three-year technology plans. Distance Learning Exchange: A free, international Web-based service that serves as a directory of distance learning activities ranging from courses for students to professional development for teachers. Prior to his tenure as director of educational technology in Pennsylvania, Bailey worked at the Clarke Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Contemporary Issues at Dickinson College. In that capacity, he assisted the director with the planning and implementation of a number of conferences and seminars covering a wide range of issues ranging from biomedical ethics to the role of NATO in the post-cold war era.

8. Jim Finn • Jim Finn was the earliest contributor of the development of modern IT field. His ideas and studies related to audio-visual field and the field’s professionalism was one of the critical scholar paradigm shifts to IT. He was believed as a person who changed the role of audio visual professionals’ role from support to leader ship and innovation. According to Januszewski (2001) Finn played one the key role for the shaping of the IT field because: (a) he was established the first academic department officially designated Instructional Technology, (b) he supervised many doctoral students in IT and most of them were involved in the development of the field, (c) he consulted to U.S. Office of Education where he could get funds for the major projects, (d) he not only consulted also worked with other major institutions for more AV education projects. In fact, it is easily observed that Finn spent his life to construct a professional field in the world of science.

9. Another point for Finn’s contribution was system foundation of IT. He believed that programming prescriptive explanation of system view was very important concept for education and an intellectual technique to make audio visual field a profession (Januszewski, 2001). • Moreover, this concept was as important as for educational technology. In his writings related to automation and education, Finn (1957) emphasized the concept of system and programming for the development of the profession. Hence, he combined four concepts: (a) system, (b) control of information to long range scientific analysis, (c) need for wise decisions and (d) high technology together. In other words, every long range scientific analysis and wise decisions enhances accumulation of knowledge of the field in a system or controlled environment. These accumulations can be easily connected to high technology or state-of-art improvement with automation process.

10. Edgar Dale • The Cone of Experience (1946) was the most important contribution of Edgar Dale in field of IT. In the cone, he explained inter-relations of the several audio-visual materials and their positions in learning processes. He expressed the divisions based on extreme two points between direct experience and pure abstraction. The divisions proposed in the cone were not accepted as exact demarcations. One audio-visual can be used with other audio- visual materials with respect to situation or purposes. • Dale’s cone is one of the most important theoretical foundations of IT. Hence, the cone makes connection between concrete and abstract ideas which is one of the main principles of teaching and learning. It also helps the professionals to select media on the basis of the experiences aimed to transfer students. It seems a job aid. Moreover, it is an effective tool to support communication process because it makes communication depending on not only just words but also visual and experiential ways. He also emphasized the other components and diversity of sensory experiences. Hence, our experiences are not completely relied on visual or verbal symbols. Other concerns of our perception systems must be considered, such as direct experience, touching, sensing. The cone also fosters diversity in learning environment. As a result, the cone is a good combination of psychological/instructional and communication theories. • The second critical contribution of Dale (1953) was social frame of communication concept. He was one of the person believed the importance of mutual experience sharing was the most important consequence of communication. In other words, he emphasized the concept of feedback.

13. Dr. Curt Bonk • received the CyberStar Award from the Indiana Information Technology Association, the Most Outstanding Achievement Award from the U.S. Distance Learning Association, and the Most Innovative Teaching in a Distance Education Program Award from the State of Indiana. He is a prolific writer and speaker.

14. He delivered a presentation, "From R2D2 to the Matrix: A Galaxy of Online Learning Style, Motivational, Blended Learning, and Learner-Centered Examples," as a professional development opportunity open to all University of Wisconsin-Extension employees. His presentation was made possible through University of Wisconsin System grant funding. • Curt Bonk is Professor of Instructional Systems Technology in the School of Education at Indiana University and adjunct in the School of Informatics. He is author of the Handbook of Blended Learning: Global Perspectives, Local Designs (2006) as well as Empowering Online Learning: 100+ Activities for Reading, Reflecting, Displaying, and Doing (2008).

15. Robert Heinich • Heinich’sapproach to management of instruction was one of the drastic changes of the field of IT. He argued classical schooling system and management of instruction. He believed that management of instructions must be product-oriented or education engineering based overall school environment (Januszewski, 2001). In his alternative paradigm, school teachers of the classical schooling system were not accepted as decision makers for instructional methods and media utilization. • He changed this view and proposed that curriculum specials, including educational technologists were assigned to determine the content and delivery of instruction. Januszewski also stated that Heinich’s paradigm for management of instruction is one of the most influential one that causes to change from the view of AV aids controlled by teachers to educational technology which became the part of curriculum development. • This great paradigm shift, even though he did not stress like the same language, was a step for being a profession by establishing an expandable body of intellectual theory. Moreover, this shift was made the concept of educational technology into school systems as a sub-system. Another interesting point is for Heinich’s ideas related to management; that were based on real applications of systems theory rather than pure science.

16. Robert M. Gagne • A true gentleman and scholar, Robert M. Gagne devoted his career to research in learning and the application of instruction. • The Legacy of Robert M. Gagneis an authoritative work on the contributions of Gagne to the field of instructional technology (IT). This edited book provides a historical overview of his life and work, including articles by six authors. This work examines Gagne's major ideas (models of human behavior learning, the cumulative learning model, learning hierarchies, domains of learning, mastery learning, and integrative goals for instructional learning). It examines the impact of these ideas on the IT field and concludes by asking how his work will impact the future of IT.

18. David Anderson • an E-Learning designer, with more than 13 years of experience in online training. His portfolio includes designing custom E-Learning for NASCAR, Mercedes, Tufts University, Delta and America West Airlines. He also shares E-Learning tips and tricks through his screencasts, blog and on Twitter.

19. Marshall McLuhan • McLuhan was an instructor of English who later became interested in communication technologies. His work involved linking media and technology to the human body (Kroker, 1995). • His work and readings are very difficult because he jumped around and introduced new terminology to explain different concepts (Katz and Katz, 2001). • His work influenced him to be a critic of popular culture. Katz and Katz (2001) summarize McLuhan’s views on technology as “…technology (also) works indirectly on society by affecting the ways in which the brain processes information from each new medium, how the mode of processing affects the senses and thus personality, and how personality, in turn, affects social organization” (paragraph 9).

20. The coined phrase “the medium is the message” is McLuhan’s interperation of technolgy in a few words. The phrase refers to McLuhan’s view that more attention should be given to the medium or technolgy and less emphasis or focus should be on the content of the medium (Katz and Katz, 2001). Thus the medium is a roadmap on how to rather than what to think (Katz and Katz, 2001). • The underlying meaning is the medium has more influence on society than the content of the medium. As a note McLuhan’s book published in 1967 was titled "The Medium is the Massage” in which message was spelled wrong (massage), by the typesetter (McLuhan Associates, 1986). But McLuhan asked the publisher not to correct the mistake because massage or broken down “Mass Age” was on target (McLuhan Associates, 1986).

21. McLuhan defines media as technologies that create an extension of the human body (Munday, 2003). McLuhan uses the notion of extension to signify anything, like technology, that extends or uses the human body or mind in a different way (Kappelman, 2001). • For example, a shovel is an extension of our hands to dig the earth. With the term extension McLuhan uses the term amputation. Amputation refers to the loss of other extensions due to the new technology (Munday, 2003). For instance the introduction of PowerPoint presentations amputates the use of the chalkboard in the classroom. The concern McLuhan had with the notion of extension and amputation is the fact that most humans are excited about extensions while amputations are ignored or not thought of (Munday, 2003). An example of ignoring the amputations is the use of fuel to power our vehicles (the technology) is taken for granted, while depleting natural resources (amputation) and potentially harming the environment is not thought at the gas pump. • McLuhan also expressed views on the notion of a “global village”. According to McLuhan's son Eric, the term “global village” was used to describe how the technology of radio in the 1920 brought society closer together through the medium (McLuhan, 1996). McLuhan authored a book entitled "War and Peace in the Global Village" published in 1968 to discuss the “global village”.

22. Driedger and Redekop, (1998) explain McLuhan’s meaning of “global village: as “…media, and television in particular, serve to bring previously marginal groups out of their local villages, and directly in touch with the mainstream of society into a global village characterized by a heightened awareness and sense of collection responsibility” (p. 44). • Thus the notion of the global village is the extent that technology has on the society and the demands that users of the medium had on other aspects of life (McIlwraith, 1994). For example, if television were the medium than those who viewed television would require the same level of involvement in different social situations (McIlwraith, 1994). • In addition, to the “global village” McLuhan also discussed the notion of “hot” and “cool” medium. The concept of “hot” and “cool” medium deals with the level of involvement or intensity the medium requires of the participant (Katz and Katz, 2001). Katz and Katz (2001) compare print and telivisionmediam as an example of “hot” and “cool” medium:

23. Donald Kirkpartick • The four model of evaluation has been the most prominent model of training evaluation for over forty years (Kraiger, 2002). Even though this model is the most accepted one, there are tons of criticisms. Kirkpatrick developed the hierarchy of evaluation on the basis of his experiences in real life applications. In Kirkpatrick’s model (1979), there are four types of assessment stages: (a) reaction defined as likeness of the training programs by trainees, (b) learning defined as what facts, principles, and techniques learned during the training, (c) behaviors defined as what changes occurred in the job behavior of trainees at the end of the training, and (d) results what the result of training in tangible form of cost, performance, quality, production, or etc.

24. The hierarchy of the model implies that without high level of reaction measures or outcomes, it is impossible to reach the superior levels. • The four-model is classified in goal-based evaluation models (Eseryel, 2002) because the main criteria for evaluation are the goals determined previously. Every step goes further in the direction of them. The model helps the training professionals to determine outcomes of the training program covertly. • To Kraiger (2002), Kirkpatrick’s model has been very popular because it is easy to understand the hierarchy by the practitioners.

25. The Four-Evaluation model is the good analysis of a training program’s assessment points. If the training program and evaluation are the systems of improvement, those goal stages show us what we have to measure to understand effect of training on the organizations. Although there are too many criticisms about the model, it has been the origin for solving the evaluation problem of training. • Most of the models in training field have been stemmed from the Four-Evaluation model (Kraiger, 2002). • The model can be used not only for training but also for schooling. From that perspective, the model is in the concerns of IT from two different utilization areas.

27. References • http://onlineuniversityrankings.org/2010/top-20-most-influential-people-in-online-learning/ • http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Ruth_Clark • http://www2.ed.gov/news/staff/bios/bailey.html • http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Jim_Finn • http://www.google.com.ph/#hl=en&biw=1024&bih=499&q=Edgar+Dale+image&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&fp=50b1837c25e1cc37 • http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Edgar_Dale • http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Donald_L._Kirkpatrick • http://www.slidefinder.net/t/theoristrobertgagne/22677427 • http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Robert_M._Gagne • http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Herbert_Marshall_McLuhan • http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Donald_L._Kirkpatrick • http://www.karlkapp.com/outandabout.html