Chapter 7: Behavioral Views of Learning

1. Chapter 7:Behavioral Views of Learning Educational Psychology, 13/e, GE Anita Woolfolk Prepared by RayeLakey

2. Chapter 7 Outline • Understanding Learning • Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning • Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses • Putting It All Together to Apply Operant Conditioning: Applied Behavior Analysis • Contemporary Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment, Positive Behavioral Supports, and Self-Management • Challenges, Cautions, and Criticisms

3. Chapter 7 Objectives 1-3 • Define learning from a behavioral perspective, including ties to neuroscience and the four processes involved in learning through contiguity, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning. • Explain early views of learning through contiguity and classical conditioning and describe their implications for teaching. • Explain operant conditioning, particularly the differences and similarities between positive and negative reinforcement and presentation and removal punishment and how reinforcement schedules affect learning.

4. Objectives 4-6 • Apply behavioral approaches to modifying behavior in and out of the classroom using applied behavioral analysis approaches to encourage and discourage behaviors, shaping, positive practice, contingency contracts, token reinforcement, group consequences, and the appropriate use of punishment. • Apply functional behavioral assessment, positive behavioral supports, and self-management techniques. • Evaluate contemporary challenges to behavioral theories of learning and address concerns about their application.

5. Understanding Learning • Learning: Process in which experience causes permanent change in knowledge, behavior, or potential for behavior • Must be brought about by experience • Not change brought about by maturation, illness, drugs, hunger, and such • Cognitive psychologists focus on changes in knowledge (learning is internal) • Behavioral psychologists focus on changes in behavior (observable) • Behavioral learning theories: Explanations of learning that focus on external events as cause of behavior changes

6. Neuroscience of Behavioral Learning • Growing knowledge about areas of brain involved with learning new behaviors • Associations between environmental stimuli, brain systems, and behavioral responses • Behavioral learning processes: • Contiguity learning • Classical conditioning • Operant conditioning • Observational learning

7. Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning • Contiguity: Association of two events because of repeated pairing (learning by association) • Stimulus occurs (event that activates behavior) • Response follows (observable reaction to stimulus) • Classical conditioning: Association of automatic responses with new stimuli (contiguity involved) • Pair a new stimulus with a response • Stimulus eventually elicits automatic response • Respondents: Automatic/involuntary responses elicited by specific stimuli • Examples: Fear, increased muscle tension, salivation, sweating (involuntary responses)

8. Classical Conditioning • Discovered by Pavlov, Russian physiologist, 1920s • Observations with dogs • First, salivated when being fed • Next, learned to associate seeing food with being fed and salivated upon seeing food • Then, began to salivate at hearing Pavlov’s footsteps • Experiment with tuning fork to condition dogs to salivate • First: Sound fork, feed dog, dog salivates • After repeated pairing of sound with food, salivation occurred after sound, before food • Turned neutral stimulus (sound) into conditioned stimulus (causing salivation)

9. Unconditioned and Conditioned • Unconditioned stimulus (US): Stimulus that automatically produces emotional/physiological response • Unconditioned response (UR): Naturally occurring emotional/physiological response • Conditioned stimulus (CS): Stimulus that evokes emotional/physiological response after conditioning • Conditioned response (CR): Learned response to previously neutral stimulus • Application to Pavlov’s dogs: • Sound initially is neutral; food is US; salivation is UR • In time, sound is CS; salivation is CR (learned response to sound)

10. Guidelines: Applying Classical Conditioning • Associate positive, pleasant events with learning tasks • Make reading pleasant by creating comfortable reading corner with pillows, colorful displays of books • Help students to risk anxiety-producing situations voluntarily and successfully • Allow student with fear of public speaking to present to small group first • Help students recognize differences/similarities among situations so they can discriminate and generalize • Must avoid strangers who offer gifts, rides; may accept favors from adults when parents are present • Note: Emotional learning interferes with academic learning • Help students learn more adaptive emotional responses

11. Operant Conditioning: Trying new Responses • Operants: Voluntary, generally goal-directed behaviors emitted by a person or an animal • Operant conditioning: Strengthen or weaken voluntary behavior by consequences or antecedents • Concept developed by B. F. Skinner, 1953 • Based on view that classical conditioning accounts for small portion of learned behavior • Behavior sandwiched between two sets of environmental influences • Antecedents: Events that precede the behavior • Consequences: Events that follow it

12. Types of Consequences • Consequences influence whether behavior is repeated • Reinforcement: Use consequences to strengthen behavior Behavior  Reinforcer  Strengthened/repeated behavior • Reinforcer: Any event that follows a behavior and increases chances of recurrence • Food as reinforcer for hungry animal • Varies with people based on their needs, perceptions • Reinforcement may strengthen behavior with positive or negative consequences

13. Positive Reinforcement (Addition of Stimulus) • Strengthen behavior by adding desired stimulus after the behavior (response) occurs • Compliments received when you wear a new outfit; you likely wear outfit again • Peers laugh when child falls out of chair; child likes laughter attention, likely repeats behavior • May occur even when reinforcer is NOT positive from teacher’s perspective • Example: Bad behavior gets teacher’s negative attention (reinforcement) • Child likes the attention, repeats bad behavior • Teacher added desired stimulus because child sees consequences (attention) as positive

14. Negative Reinforcement (Subtraction of Stimulus) • Strengthen behavior by removing (subtracting) an aversive stimulus after the behavior occurs • Aversive: Irritating or unpleasant • Example: Child fears giving report, gets sick, misses report • Removal of child’s task of giving report (aversive stimulus) • Strengthens behavior as child repeats behavior of getting sick to miss report

15. Punishment Process that weakens or suppresses behavior Behavior  Punisher  Weakened/decreased behavior • Presentation punishment: Decrease behavior by adding an aversive stimulus following the behavior • Removal punishment: Decrease behavior by removing a pleasant stimulus following the behavior • Distinguish negative reinforcement and punishment • Reinforcement (both + and -) increases behavior • Punishment suppresses behavior

16. Reinforcement Schedules • Continuous reinforcement schedule: Presenting a reinforcer after every appropriate response • Effective when one is learning a new behavior • Intermittent reinforcement schedule: Presenting a reinforcer after some but not all responses • Effective in maintaining behavior after it is mastered • Two types of intermittent reinforcement schedules • Interval schedule (fixed or variable): Reinforcement based on length of time between reinforcers • Ratio schedule (fixed or variable): Reinforcement based on number of responses between reinforcers • Encourage persistence with variable schedules

17. Extinction • Disappearance of a learned response (when reinforcement is removed) • Occurs in classical conditioning when conditioned stimulus appears but unconditioned stimulus does not follow • Occurs in operant conditioning if the usual reinforcer is withheld long enough

18. Antecedents and Behavior Change • Antecedents: Events preceding behaviors • Stimulus control: Capacity for presence/absence of antecedents to cause behaviors • Skinner’s pigeons peck and get food when light is on (not when light is off) • Use of cues in the classroom • Effective instruction delivery: Concise, clear, specific instructions that communicate expected result • Cue: A stimulus that “sets up” desired behavior • Prompt: Reminder that follows a cue to make sure person reacts to cue • Checklists, reminder sheets

19. Putting It All Together to Apply Operant Conditioning: Applied Behavior Analysis • Applied behavior analysis: Application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior • Sometimes called behavior modification: Systematic use of antecedents/consequences to change behavior • Steps in classroom application of applied behavior analysis • Clearly specify behavior to be changed and goal • Observe, note current behavior (frequency, causes, surroundings, time of day) • Plan specific intervention using antecedents, consequences or both • Keep track of results and modify plan if necessary

20. Methods for Encouraging Behaviors • Reinforcing with teacher attention • Praise good behavior, ignore misbehavior • Effective praise must be systematic, believable • Guidelines for using praise appropriately: • Clear, systematic; tied directly to appropriate behavior • Appreciative, not evaluative; praise action, not person • Based on individual abilities and limitations; focused on student’s progress, not comparison to others • Attributed to effort and ability, not to luck, extra help, or easy material • Reinforcing to individual, not used to influence class • Genuine accomplishment of met goal (not for less)

21. Selecting Reinforcers: The Premack Principle • Principle named for David Premack, 1965 • States that a more-preferred activity can serve as a reinforcer for a less-preferred activity • Sometimes called Grandma’s rule: First, do what I want you to do, then do what you want. • Less-preferred activity must happen first • Ideas for reinforcers in classroom application of rule • Time to talk, sit with friend, use computer, make a video, play games

22. Shaping – Successive Approximations • Reinforce progress rather than waiting for perfection • Especially useful when student cannot perform skill or task to gain reinforcement • Shaping: Reinforcing each small step of progress toward a desired goal or behavior • Successive approximations: Small components that make up a complex behavior • Process involves task analysis (breaking down task into basic skills and subskills) • Provides logical sequence of steps leading to final goal • Teacher sees where student struggles with subskill during sequence and helps student succeed

23. Positive Practice • Practicing correct responses immediately after errors • Effective when students make academic errors • Correct an academic mistake as soon as possible; practice the correct response immediately • Positive practice overcorrection: Practice correct behavior until it becomes almost automatic • Use when student breaks classroom rule • Specific practice of correct behavior essential part of every behavioral learning program • Practicing accurate behaviors is important

24. Guidelines: Applying Operant Conditioning to Encourage Positive Behaviors • Recognize positive behavior in ways students value • Positive consequences for following rules; second chance for honest admission of mistakes • Give plenty of reinforcement with new skills/material • Reinforce on unpredictable schedule to encourage persistence after new behaviors are established • Surprise rewards for getting into groups quietly • Use Premack principle to identify effective reinforcers • Use cueing to help establish new behaviors • Give praise, privileges, rewards to all students when they do something well • Establish a variety of reinforcers

25. Contingency Contracts, Token Reinforcement, and Group Consequences • Contingency contract between teacher/student specifying what student must do to earn specified reward/privilege • Teacher writes contract, specifies what student must do • Student may help in setting goal, suggesting reward • Token reinforcement system: Tokens eared for academic work or positive behavior can be exchanged for reward • Can be complicated, time-consuming systems • May motivate uninterested student, encourage student who’s not making progress, address class-wide problem • Group consequences: Rewards/punishments given to class as a whole for adhering to or violating rules of conduct • Good behavior game: Teams receive demerits or rewards as a team

26. Handling Undesirable Behavior • Negative reinforcement: Use something aversive to get students to achieve goal, then remove aversive stimulus • Puts students in control; may not effect desired change • Reprimands: Criticisms of misbehavior • Should be done quietly, privately to be effective • Response cost: Punishment by loss of reinforcers • Social isolation/time out: Briefly remove disruptive student • If strategy fails, do not try longer time out • To use punishment effectively, do two things • Suppress bad behavior • Make clear what student should do in place of the misbehavior (strengthen positive responses)

27. Guidelines for Applying Operant Conditioning: Using Punishment • Try to use negative reinforcement rather than punishment • Ignore student promise to do better; stick to plan • Keep punishment mild, brief; pair with doing the right thing • Be consistent in applying punishment • Keep confrontations private • Make sure students know rules and consequences of breaking rules • Focus on students’ actions, not students’ personal qualities • Be calm, firm, not sarcastic • Adapt punishment to infraction • Make sure punishment isn’t worse than crime • If misbehavior continues, punishment is not working

28. Reaching Every Student: Severe Behavior Problems • Applied behavioral principles help students with severe behavior problems • 5 adolescent males, severe emotional disorders • ABAB design (applied behavior analysis) was successful • 4 preschool students diagnosed with attention-deficit hyperactive disorder • Response cost system effective and easy to implement • Boy with autism • Response cost (ABAB design) was effective • Boy returned to regular classroom after training

29. Contemporary Applications: Functional Behavioral Assessment • General reasons students act out • Receive attention from others • Escape unpleasant situation, academic or social demand • Get a desired item, activity • Meet sensory needs • Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) focuses on “why” • Collect information: Antecedents, behaviors, consequences of the problem behavior • Use variety of ways to gather information • Analyze to determine what functions the behavior serves • FBA observation guide: List time, antecedent event, exact behavior, and consequences on observation sheet

30. Positive Behavior Supports (PBS) • Interventions designed to replace problem behavior with new action that serves the same purpose for the student • Based on functional behavioral assessment • Examples: Teach student to ask for help or request a break • Required by IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Act) for students with disabilities • Precorrection: Preventive strategies used as PBS • Identify context for student’s misbehavior • Specify alternative expected behavior • Modify situation to make problem behavior unlikely • Rehearse expected positive behaviors; reinforce • PBS used in school-wide programs

31. Self-Management • Use behavioral learning principles to change own behavior • Goal setting: Specific goals, announced/made public • Monitoring and evaluating progress • Student often monitors own progress • Maintain chart, checklist, other record or frequency/duration of behaviors in question • Judge quality of own progress; self-correct or improve work; compare improvement to standards • Self-reinforcement: Controlling own reinforcers • Deny self a reward until goal is met

32. Guidelines for Applying Operant Conditioning: Student Self-Management • Introduce system to parents/students in positive way • Help families/students establish reachable goals • Suggest goals such as beginning homework early • Give families ways to record, evaluate progress • Divide work into easily measured steps • Give families a form/checklist • Provide models of good work when needed • Encourage families to check accuracy of student records and help child develop forms of self-reinforcement • Start with frequent checkups, then fewer checkups

33. Challenges to Early Behavioral Approaches • Albert Bandura challenges behaviorism, develops new theories • Social learning theory, Bandura’s early work • Distinguishes between enactive and observational learning • Enactive: Learn by doing, experience consequences of your actions • Observational: Learn by observation, imitation of others • Distinguishes between knowledge and performance • One can know and wait for appropriate situation to perform/demonstrate the learning • Social cognitive theory, Bandura’s later work

34. Criticisms of Behavioral Methods • Debate about whether students should be rewarded for schoolwork, academic accomplishments • One view: Students are punished by rewards • System of rewards is controlling, decreases students’ interest in material • Other view: Learning should be rewarding • Rewards maintain intrinsic motivation, bolster confidence; some may not learn without rewards • Ethical issues about processes that influence/control • Strategies: Concern for negative effects of punishment as a strategy and impact of other strategies on individual child

35. Behavioral Approaches: Lessons for Teachers • Principles teachers can use that apply to all people • No one eagerly repeats behaviors that have been punished/ignored • When actions lead to consequences that are positive, actions are likely to be repeated • Teachers often fail to use reinforcement to recognize appropriate behavior • Praise must be sincere recognition of real accomplishment to be effective • Students can learn to be more self-managing