Vijaynagar and Deccani Sultanates

1. Vijaynagar and Deccani Sultanates 1335/47-1660s

2. Deccani Dynasties • After the collapse of Khalji power, the Tughlaqs (1320-1414) were unable to hold on the south. • By 1336 the brothers Harihara and Bukka, who were either captives or tributaries of Muhammad bin Tughlaq returned to the Deccan South and founded the kingdom of Vijaynagar • Other parts of the Deccan were claimed by a former Turkish soldier Hassan Kangu, a nephew of Ala-ud-din Khalji’s general. He gave himself the name Ala-ud-din Hassan Bahmani Shah, founding the Bahmani kingdom • Later his own generals would set up five separate kingdoms: Bijapur, Berar, Bidar, Ahmadnagar, Golconda

3. Raichur Doab

4. Origin Myths and historiographies • Since each of the Deccani dynasties were from relatively humble origins, each dynasty created an origin myth—patronage of Bhramins (Bahamani), descent from Persian Emperor (Bijapur), patronage/persecution by Tughlaqs (Vijaynagar). • In actual fact each of these dynasties represented the warrior traditions of Sultanate-era South Asia—Nayakas, Turkish soldiers, Persian emigrants • In today’s history the past of these dynasties is written in communalist tones as a massive Hindu/Muslim conflict. The evidence from this period does not support such a simplistic argument, the past was much more complex.

5. The Deccan and its politics • Each of these kingdoms was a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, and multi-religious society—even Muslims were as likely to be Shia as Sunni • The king’s personal ties could not be made part of official policy—all groups had to be incorporated into public life. • Officials from the 5 sultanates and Vijaynagar were a mix of Hindu and Muslim • The boundaries of these kingdoms closely follow the earlier regional boundaries, suggesting geographical issues continued to be important

6. Reason for fluid alliances • Since all six kingdoms relied heavily on trade revenue, an open policy vis-à-vis other groups was essential • The growth of Military Fiscalism also meant that ties with Central Asia, the Middle East, and European companies had to be preserved to ensure a supply of war horses and canons. • Strategic interests dictated a system of open alliances—as the Raichur doab was the bone of contention among the six kingdoms, each of the sultanates formed alliances with Vijaynagar at some point, and when Vijaynagar became dominant, collaborated against it.

7. Why does contemporary History see this as a Hindu/Muslim conflict? • Influence of British Orientalists such as Sewell, who produces the first English history of this era • Early histories by Indian nationalists in the late 19th and early 20th century reflected the religious biases of that time • Linguistic rivalry between regional nationalisms—Kannad versus Telugu • Sources of the period when taken selectively, particularly in terms of religious legitimacy, can endorse this view

8. What are the sources? • Epigraphic inscriptions on rocks, caves, temples, copperplate grants • Persian chronicles and Sanskrit literature from the courts (see Thursday’s reading) • Travelers’ accounts—Arab, Portuguese, and Dutch (see today’s reading) • Non-textual sources such as art, architecture, textiles, coins (see Wagoner)

9. Vijaynagar

10. Origins and expansion • Link to Tughlaqs and Harihara and Bukka clear, however dispute over the nature of that link • Four dynasties—Sangama, Saluva (Saluva Narasimha), Tuluva (40 years), Aravidu • Based on segmentary rule, centralized control was limited, local dynasties were incorporated into empire through ritual means. Similar segmentation and incorporation is seen in the five Deccani sultanates. Discuss why.

11. Models of Rule • Patronage of Nayaka warriors, recruitment of other southern warrior groups, Turkish, Afghan, and Portuguese mercenaries • Older ruling families left in place as long as tribute was paid (notice similarities/differences with iqta system) • Considerable grants given to Brahmins tax free, particularly by Tuluva dynasty • Great emphasis on preserving trade revenues • A warrior ethic cultivated as part of ruling ideology, energies of this culture oriented to the borders of this kingdom.

12. Krishnadeva Raya 1509-1529 • Most important ruler of Saluvas • Expands military recruitment and purchases • Expands Empire greatly, builds alliances with Portuguese and other Sultanates • Builds monumental temples and tries to create legitimacy through patronage of Brahmins

13. Virupaksha Temple

14. Consequences of Expansion • After Krishnadeva Raya many of his reforms were undone by his successors • Military expansion was expensive—continued purchases of horses and expensive weaponry demanded more revenue • Kings increasingly had to rely on greater recruitment of Nayaka warriors—infighting among the various chiefs became endemic • Alliances with one or more Deccani Sultanates was essential—however, as Vijaynagar expanded the Sultantes were more likely to see it as a rival not an ally. In 1565 the Sultanates form an alliance and defeat Vijaynagara, sacking the capital city • The kingdom would continue until 1664 engulfed in disputes among the powerful nayaka families

15. Important legacies • Conquest, politics, and religious legitimacy have dominated modern histories, but none are as significant to the actual legacy of Vijaynagar and the Deccani Sultanates • More important is the Multi-lingual/ethnic cosmopolitan culture that these left behind • Strong patronage for the written arts fostered learning in Sanskrit and Persian, but also in the regional languages such as Kannada, Telugu, Tamil. Also gave rise to the Deccani dialect of Urdu • Fostered the growth of trading networks, increased contact with Europe, Africa, Middle east, East Asia • Profits from trade lead to greater urbanization and economic growth • Short term conflicts proved less significant than the long-term collaboration between local dynasties/warrior groups, which would strongly oppose the incursion of Mughal power in the 16th and 17th century.

16. Art as a Historical Source

17. Muhammad bin Tughlaq1325-1351 Madman or misunderstood Genius?

18. Background and Motivations • 1320 the first Tughlaq Sultan Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq rises to the throne after subduing the choas arising from the Khilji succession. • Moderate rule that kept many of Ala-ud-din’s reforms, but attempted to reconcile and win back the favor the Chehelgan • His son and heir Ulugh Khan is deputed to crush out rebellion in the Deccan (Warrangal) and Bengal in the east • Suspicions about Ulugh Khan’s succession and Ghiyas’ death—collapse of the wooden pavillion

19. Areas Claimed by Tughlaqs Rebellious Areas

20. Character of Mohammad b. Tughlaq • Sources are very divided—Isami hated the King, Barani wrote for his successor and cousin Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Ibn Batuta implies the king’s mental instability • Extremely well educated, particularly well-trained in Islamic Fiqh, history, and South Asian administrative practices • Interested in Ala-ud-din’s reformist legacy, also in the reforms being carried out in the Middle East and China • Moody, often paranoid of insubordination. Could be generous to a fault, prone to anger and violence

21. Controversial Reforms • 1327-30 moving the central capital to Daulatabad • 1328-9 doab taxes • 1329-30 token currency in copper • 1341-43 creation of a new legal code or asalib • Each reform had logical goals, but was poorly executed

22. Moving the Capital • Done with poor planning • Extreme heat, lack of provisions • Forced move of nobility and artisans • Logistics of information/travel in this period, Mongol attacks lead to failure

23. Increase in Doab Taxes, 1328-29 • Doab was the most productive, however, no measures were takes to phase the taxes in gradually, or target more profitable crops • Peasants rebel and leave villages • Grain becomes expensive, revocation of taxes and release of grains from city granries comes as too little to late • Widespread famine in 1330s causes further problems

24. Currency Reform, 1329-1330 • Introduction of copper coins an attempt to copy the chao of the Chinese-Mongol empire • Not a bad idea, however, its value made 1:1 with silver tanka coins • Coin easy to forge, causes collapse in currency value, foreign merchants refuse to accept it • Treasury has to buy back all copper coins

25. New Legal Code, 1341-43 • Attempt to create a unified legal code based on sharia • New judges, many foreigners, hired to try cases—offends local ulema • Did not recognize that the flexibility and diversity of local custom was favorable to most local communities—uniformity only of use to government and certain elites

26. Why did his reforms fail? • Bad timing in terms of weather and politics • The personality of the Sultan, lack of diplomacy • An inability to carry out one reform at a time • Inability to fit a theoretical model of empire to local conditions • The support of the Chehelgan, Sufis, Ulema, and peasant communities were still important, and the Sultan undermined them.

27. Firuz’s restoration, 1351-88 • First peaceful succession—1351 his cousin and heir Firuz is crowned with popular support • Quickly attempts to restore confidence in the government by giving generous gifts to nobility, local leaders, Religious figures • Foreign judges pensioned off, local one hired • Compensation give to M. B. Tughlaq’s victims • Massive public works and charity undertaken for common people • No attempt made to re-establish control over Deccan • Wages rise, but the Iqta system with all its problems is re-asserted

28. Evaluating the Sultanate period • Both at the elite and popular level a hybrid culture mixing Indian and Islamicate ideas and culture was beginning to emerge—most notably in literature, religion, dress, manners • An Indian version of Islam, heavily influenced by Sufism, local customs, and local pilgrimage sites became rooted in South Asia—very different from Middle Eastern Islam • Politically leadership; however, remained fragmented since the iqta system and other forms of segmentary rule favored local nobility not a centralized authority • Trade continued to grow and expand connecting far-flung parts of South Asia and serving as a conduit for the movement of culture and ideas, also appears to have led to forms of social mobility for some groups.

29. Transition to Mughal Era • After the Tughlaq period no other major empires would form until the arrival of the Mughals in 1526 • Stable regional kingdoms, however, such as that of the Lodis (NW), Sharqis, Bengal, Vijaynagar, and Deccani Sultantes do appear and last until 1526 • Each of these regimes showed considerable cultural borrowing—Islamic sultanates gradually became indigenized to some degree, while Hindu Kingdoms borrowed from Islamicate forms