Educational Psychology

Educational Psychology Draw and discuss the significant aspects of the model of the teaching/learning process presented in class (or discussed in one of the required readings), giving specific examples of the types of variables considered in educational psychology. Describe relationships among variables you discuss. Developed by W. Huitt (1999)

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Educational Psychology is essentially the scientific discipline that attempts to answer the question “Why do some students learn more than others?” Take a moment to brainstorm on reasons you think some students in some classrooms might learn more than students in the same or other classrooms. That is, what are the reasons, both within and across classrooms and schools, that you believe research has shown will influence what and how much students learn.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process There are so many possible answers to this question that researchers have tried to group similar answers together. The following is one example of a classification system.

Categories of Variables All those factors outside of the classroom that provide the environment for the teaching and learning process Context Those qualities or characteristics of teachers and students that they bring with them to the classroom experience Input Teacher and student behaviors in the classroom as well as some other variables such as classroom climate and teacher/ student relationships Classroom Processes Output Measures of student learning taken apart from the normal instructional process

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Output is the most important category because the variables in the rest of the categories are used to predict or relate to the variables measured in this one. Most of the time in the U.S. when we ask "How well or how much has the student learned?” we mean "How well has the student done on a standardized measure of student achievement in the basic skills of Reading, Language Arts, and Mathematics?"

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process However, if we change what we mean by learning (e.g., character development or social skills) or if we change the particular measure of learning (e.g., use the writing section of the Scholastic Achievement Test instead of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills), then we may find that other context, input, or classroom process variables are better predictors of student learning.

As we shall see, there are a variety of outcomes that are important in today's world (such as cognitive development and character) that are not presently discussed when we talk about student learning.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process The second most important category, at least from the perspective of the educational institution and educational psychology, is the Classroom Processes category. This includes all the variables that would occur in the classroom. There are three subcategories: • Teacher Behavior • Student Behavior • Other/Miscellaneous

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process The category of Teacher Behavior consists of all the actions a teacher would make in the classroom and includes three additional subcategories: all of those activities a teacher might do to get ready to interact with students in the classroom • Planning • Management controlling student behavior • Instruction guiding student learning

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Research has shown that only a small number of individual teacher behavior variables actually predict student achievement.* * Walberg, H. (1986). Synthesis of research on teaching. In M. Wittrock (Ed.)., Handbook of research on teaching (pp. 214-229). New York: Macmillan. • Use of positive reinforcement 1.17 Sds. • Cues and corrective feedback 0.97 • Cooperative learning activities 0.76 • Higher-order questioning 0.34 • Use of advance organizers 0.23

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process The category of Student Behavior includes all of the actions a student would make in the classroom and includes one very important variable (at least in relationship to predicting student achievement on standardized tests) and that is Academic Learning Time. Academic Learning Time is defined as "the amount of time students are successfully covering content that will be tested”* * Squires, D., Huitt, W., & Segars, J. (1983). Effective classrooms and schools: A research-based perspective. Washington, D.C.: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Academic Learning Time is composed of three separate variables: the percentage of the content covered on the test actually covered by students in the classroom • Content Overlap amount of time students are actively involved in the learning process • Engaged Time extent to which students accurately complete the assignments they have been given • Success

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process A high level of Academic Learning Time means that 1) students are covering important (tested/evaluated) content; 2) students are "on-task" most of the class period; and 3) students are successful on most the assignments they complete.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process There are a variety of other classroom factors which have been related to student achievement such as • classroom atmosphere and morale and • the opportunity for students to engage in leadership roles.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process One of the most important concepts that has been developed in educational psychology during the past 30 years is that classroom process variables are the most direct link to student achievement.* * Rosenshine, B. (1995). Advances in research on instruction. The Journal of Educational Research, 88(5), 262-268. More specifically, the teacher's classroom behavior (included in the categories of planning, management and instruction) has a direct influence on student classroom behavior (most importantly, Academic Learning Time).

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Academic Learning Time, then, is the most direct link to measures of student achievement.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process The third major category of variables, Input, refers to descriptions of teachers and students prior to their coming into the classroom. There are again two important subcategories: • Teacher Characteristics and • Student Characteristics.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Some important subcategories of teacher characteristics include • the teacher's values and beliefs, • knowledge, thinking and communication skills, • performance skills, and • personality. Of course, there are many more possible subcategories, but these seem to be the most important.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process The most important teacher characteristic (in terms of predicting how well teachers will perform in the classroom as well as student achievement) seems to be the teacher's values and belief or more particularly Teacher Efficacy (Ashton, 1984). This variable is a measure of the teacher's belief that students can learn and that he/she can teach. Proctor (1986) has developed a model of the teaching/ learning process that highlights the role of teacher expectations. Ashton, P. (1984, Sept/Oct.) Teacher efficacy: A motivational paradigm for effective teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education. 28-32. Proctor, C. (1984, March). Teacher expectations: A model for school improvement. The Elementary School Journal, 469-481.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Another important set of teacher characteristics includes the teacher's knowledge with respect to: • the content domain (knowledge of subject matter to be taught), • human growth and development (theories, topics, and stages), • learning theory (behavioristic, cognitive, humanistic, social cognition), and • the teaching/learning process (concepts and principles as well as their application in formal and informal environments).

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process As you have already had a course in human growth and development, this course is designed to review that area and provide additional instruction in two others: • learning theory, and • the teaching/learning process.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process In the state of Georgia, a teacher's knowledge is evaluated through the completion of college-level courses and passing the appropriate Praxis II test administered by the Educational Testing Service. At VSU, a teacher's thinking and communication skills is evaluated by successfully completing specific English courses as well as upper division core classes.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Performance skills are measured through a requirement of student teaching and an annual evaluation using the Georgia Teacher Observation Instrument (GTOI). While there is no single personality that seems to make the "best" teacher, it is certainly a variable that has attracted a lot of interest. One measure of personality that has become popular in education circles is the Keirsey Temperament Scale (a version of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator).

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process There are a wide variety of Student Characteristics that have been related to classroom behavior and student achievement. In general, research has shown that when time available for learning (a context variable) is held constant, as it is in most learning environments in the United States, then a student's intelligence or academic ability is the best student characteristic variable that will predict student achievement.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process However, researchers such as Bloom and his colleagues (e.g, Anderson & Block, 1977; Bloom, 1971)* have shown that when time to learn is allowed to vary, a student's prior knowledge is a better student characteristic to predict student achievement. * Anderson, L., & Block, J. (1977). Mastery learning. In D. Treffinger, J. Davis, & R. Ripple (eds.), Handbook on teaching educational psychology. New York: Academic Press. * Bloom, B. (1971). Mastery learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston, Inc.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process It is not difficult to see why this might be the case. Intelligence is a measure of one’s speed to learn; when time is held constant, those who learn faster learn more. When time is allowed to vary, and speed is no longer as important, then most students can learn all required content.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process This issue of "time to learn" is very important. If we truly believe that everyone can learn and that it is important to learn, then it would seem we would make a greater effort to provide the appropriate time to learn. However, if we believe that ability is more important and that only the most capable individuals can learn all we want them to learn, then the present system will continue to produce a result that verifies that expectation.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Other student characteristics that have been found to be important include: • Study habits, • Age, • Sex/Gender, • Motivation, • Learning Style, • Cognitive development, • Socioemotional development, • Moral and character development, and • Race/Ethnicity.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process In fact, the list of important student characteristics is so long entire books have been written on them. A good example is • Bloom, B. (1983). Human characteristics and school learning. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process The final category is context. This category includes all of those variables outside of the classroom that have an impact on teacher and student characteristics, classroom processes, and output. These variables describe the environment within which teaching and learning takes place. The most immediate subcategories of context variables include school characteristics and school processes.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process School characteristics includes variables such as: • organizational structure and • school size. School processes include factors related to activities such as: • leadership, • supervisory practices, and • school climate.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process There are a wide variety of other context variables that influence the teaching/learning process. Some of the subcategories of these variables include: • Home, • Religious Institutions, • Peer Groups, • Community, • Society, • Culture, and • International Conditions.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process Variables related to the home environment seem especially important and include such variables as: • the education levels of parents, • family income/socioeconomic status (SES), • other parental characteristics (such as age or marital status), and a • group of miscellaneous variables which includes the amount of technology in the home, the number of books and magazines in the home, and so forth.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process One of the variables that best predicts student achievement seems to be the level of mother's education--especially if she did not graduate from high school (e.g., Campbell, 1991; Voelkl, 1993; Zill, 1992). This may be because the mother is the first educator of the child and the level of language usage she uses with the child is an important predictor of the child's language usage and school achievement. • Campbell, F., & others.(1991). Parental beliefs and values related to family risk, educational intervention, and child academic competence. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 6(2), 167-182. • Voelkl, K. (1993). Achievement and expectations among African-American students. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 27(1), 42-55. • Zill, N. (1992). Trends in family life and children's school performance. Washington, DC: Child Trends, Inc. (ERIC Reproduction No. ED378257).

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process A second important factor is the amount of technology in the home (Perelman, 1992). This may be because technology is such an important factor in today's society and the more familiar the child is with technology, the more likely the child will feel comfortable in the modern classroom. It might also have something to do with the cognitive stimulation that results from interacting with technology. • Perelman, L. (1992). School's out: Hyperlearning, the new technology, and the end of education. New York: William Morrow.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process One of the most important context factors affecting education today is the movement from the industrial age to the information age (Huitt, 1995, 1997). This is especially important because it is redefining the knowledge and skills that students need if they are to be successful in society. • Huitt, W. (1995). Success in the information age: A paradigm shift. Background paper developed for workshop presentation at the Georgia Independent School Association, Atlanta, Georgia. • Huitt, W. (1997). The SCANS report revisited. Paper delivered at the Fifth Annual Gulf South Business and Vocational Education Conference, Valdosta State University, Valdosta, GA, April 18.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process As shown in the following graph, the number of people employed in the service and information sectors today is over 75% or approximately the same percentage as that accounted for by agriculture and industry in the 1870s.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process This model has been developed from the perspective of systems theory. It will be one of the main organizing features of this course. There are a variety of other models that have been developed to organize the variables of interest in educational psychology. McIlrath and Huitt (1995) provide a review of previous models of the teaching/ learning process and compare it to this proposed model. • McIlrath, D., & Huitt, W. (1995). The teaching/learning process: A discussion of models. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process In summary, some of the major organizing principles for the development of this model are: • so many variables have been identified as important to the teaching/learning process that a model is necessary to organize and simplify what we know; • the identification of important outcome variables is critical in that all other variables are designed to predict them; • no single category of variables accounts for all of the variance in desired student outcomes;and • identification of a small number of variables in each category can be used to predict student achievement.

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process For example, the following important variables have been identified as “best predictors in the category:” ContextMother’s educational level Technology in the home Input Teacher efficacy Student Intelligence or Student prerequisite knowledge Classroom Teacher’s use of positive reinforcement Teacher’s use of corrective feedback Academic Learning Time

Model of the Teaching/Learning Process However, remember that these important variables have been identified because they predict student achievement on standardized tests of basic skills. If another desired outcome is selected these may not be the most important.

Educational Psychology