An Introduction to U.S. Higher Education— Past, Present, and Future

1. An Introduction to U.S. Higher Education—Past, Present, and Future

2. Topics • History • Types of Colleges and Universities • Governance of Colleges and Universities • The Future of Higher Education

3. HISTORY

4. c. 975: Al-Azhar University, Cairo c. 1076: University of Bologna c. 1117: Oxford University 1170: University of Paris 1209-28: Cambridge University 1385: University of Heidelberg (first German university) 1636: Harvard University (first American university)

5. Harvard, 1828

6. Harvard: founded 1636, Puritan • William and Mary: 1693, Anglican • Yale: 1701, Congregational (Puritan) • Pennsylvania : 1740, nonsectarian (Anglican) • Princeton: 1746, nonsectarian (Presbyterian) • Columbia: 1754, Anglican • Brown: 1764, Baptist • Rutgers: 1766, Dutch Reformed • Dartmouth: 1769, Congregational (Puritan)

7. Early Public Colleges and Universities • North Carolina, 1789/1795 • Georgia, 1785/1799 • Vermont, 1791 • Virginia, 1800/1819 • Ohio, 1804 • Michigan, 1817 • Indiana, 1820

9. “our liberty can never be safe but in the hands of the people themselves, and that, too, of the people with a certain degree of instruction. This is the business of the state to effect, and on a general plan.” --Thomas Jefferson, 1786 “this institution [the University of Virginia] will be based on the illimitable freedom of the human mind. for here we are not afraid to follow truth wherever it may lead, nor to tolerate any error so long as reason is left free to combat it.” --Thomas Jefferson, 1820

10. The Land-Grant College Act(Morrill Act), 1862 “without excluding other scientific and classical studies and including military tactic, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legislatures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions in life.”

11. The Land-Grant College Act(Morrill Act), 1862 • Kansas State University, 1862 • Iowa State University, 1858/1864 • Rutgers University, 1766/1864 • Michigan State University, 1855/1862 • University of California, 1855/1868 • Connecticut, 1881 • Hawaii, 1907 • District of Columbia, 1967 (cash, not land)

12. “Old Main,” Iowa State University, 1864-68

13. Black Colleges and Universities Reconstruction, 1864-1877 • Fisk University, 1866 • Howard University, 1867 • Alcorn State University, Mississippi, the first state-supported higher education institution for African Americans, 1871 • 1890 Morrill Act • Higher Education Act of 1965: 110 Historically Black Colleges and Universities

14. Women and Higher Education • Separate women's colleges: Wesleyan College (Georgia), 1836/1839 • Oberlin the first coeducational college, 1837; Antioch the second, 1852 • 1879: almost 1/2 of all colleges were coeducational, especially the new state universities created by the Morrill Act

17. Curricular Innovations • Ph.D. (research) degrees: Yale the first, 1861; spread slowly • Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1861 • Morrill Act, 1862: Engineering, agriculture, military officer training • Wharton School (Business), 1881 • Teachers College: Columbia University among the first, 1887/1892 • Majors and electives widespread by late 19th century

18. From Normal Schools toTeachers’ Colleges and Beyond • Concord, Vermont, 1823 (first private) • Lexington, Massachusetts, 1839 (first public) • Michigan State Normal School (now Eastern Michigan University), 1853 • Minns Evening Normal School, 1857 (California State Normal School, 1862; moved to San José, 1871; now San José State University) • Los Angeles branch of the California State Normal School, 1881 (now UCLA) • San Francisco State Normal School, 1899 (now San Francisco State University)

19. Manual Training Class, San Jose State Normal School, 1892

20. Community Colleges • First established in Joliet, Illinois, 1901, as an extension of the local high school • Vocational emphasis in 1920s and 1930s • Also developed as transfer institutions, providing the first two years of a baccalaureate education • Rapid growth in 1960s • Technical training emphasis in 1980s • Typically practice open admission; 42% of entering public community college students must take remedial courses

21. Higher Education Systems • California (Master Plan, 1960): University of California (9), California State University (23), California Community Colleges (109) • Florida: State University System (11), Community Colleges System (28) • New York: State University of New York, 1948 (64), City University of New York, 1961 (21) • Texas: Uni. of Texas (15), Texas A&M (12), Texas State (4), Uni. of Houston (4), Texas Tech (3)

22. Types of Colleges and Universities

23. Carnegie Classification for Colleges and Universities • Research/doctoral universities: 285 • Master’s degree granting: 665 • Baccalaureate degree granting: 766 • Associate degree granting: 1,705 • Special purpose: 806 • Tribal colleges: 32

24. Colleges and Universities by Funding Source • Public • Private, non-affiliated • Private, church-related • Proprietary

25. Examples of Colleges and Universities in the SF Bay Area

26. Examples of Public Institutions • UC Berkeley (doctoral/research): • 23,863 undergrad., 10,070 grad. & prof. students • 108 bacc. degree programs, 64 masters, 96 doctoral, 32 professional • undergraduate fees: $8,383/yr. for full-time enrollment • SF State (masters/comprehensive): • 23,843 undergraduates, 5,785 graduate students • 109 bacc. degree programs, 85 masters, 5 doctoral • undergraduate fees: $3,486/yr. for full-time enrollment • City College of San Francisco (associates): • 93,877 students, 29,211 credit FTES • 30 degree or certificate programs • fees: $20 per unit, approx. $600/yr. for full-time enrollment

27. SAN FRANCISCO STATE Business Administration   Psychology  Biology English Cinema   Art   Radio & Television   Engineering    Liberal Studies   Journalism  UC DAVIS Psychology Biological Sciences Economics Managerial Economics Political Science Communications Biochem and Molecular Biology Sociology English International Relations Largest Undergraduate Degree Programs

28. Community Colleges Programs • Provide courses for transfer to a baccalaureate-granting institution • Workforce training -- • Police, firefighters, nurses • Aeronautical and automotive mechanics • Culinary arts – chefs, bakers, etc. • Medical and dental assistants and technicians • Machinery maintenance • Adult education • Personal enrichment

29. Governance of Colleges and Universities Accreditation Internal Governance

30. Accreditation -- self-regulation of academic quality through accreditation • Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools • New England Association of Schools and Colleges • North Central Association of Colleges and Schools • Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities • Southern Association of Colleges and Schools • Western Association of Schools and Colleges

31. WASC • Accrediting Commission for Senior Colleges and Universities (151 institutions in California, Hawai'i, and the Pacific) • Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges (140 institutions) • Accrediting Commission for Schools (3,800+ K-12 and occupational schools)

32. College and University Internal Governance Governing Boards Administrators Academic Senates

33. Legal Authority Governing Board (Directors, Regents, Trustees) Chief Executive Officer (Chancellor, President) Chief Academic Officer (Academic Vice-president/chancellor, Provost) Other Vice-presidents/chancellors (finance, administration, development, student services) Academic Administrators (Associate Vice-presidents, Deans, Directors)

34. University Governance • Joint Decision-making • Collegial Decision-making

35. Academic Governance in the United States • 1889: first academic senate in the U.S. established at Cornell University • 1915: American Association of University Professors organized to define and protect academic freedom • 1966: Statement on Government of Colleges and Universities (AAUP, with recognition by the American Council on Education and the Association of Governing Boards of Universities and Colleges)

36. Areas Subject to Joint Decision-Making • The Curriculum: Courses and Degree Programs • Academic Policies • General education requirements • Grading practices and standards • Academic planning • Admissions criteria and procedures • Campus policies that govern the library and research facilities • The academic calendar • Hiring, Retention, Tenure, and Promotion of Faculty Members • Searches for Administrators • Budget Planning, Facilities Planning

37. Governance at SFSU:The Academic Senate 55 members elected by and from the voting members of the faculty; elected senators serve three-year terms: • 42 Senators elected from each College, the Library, and Student Services, including at least one lecturer from each unit. • 10 Senators elected at large. • 3 members of the Academic Senate CSU elected at large. 10 appointed or ex officio members: • The President of the University. • The Provost. • 4 Senators appointed annually by the University President. • 3 Senators chosen by the Associated Students. • 1 Senator chosen by the staff.

38. How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate

39. How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate

40. How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate

41. How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate

42. How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate

43. How Proposals Move Through the Academic Senate

44. University Decision-Making • Often complex, involving several layers of decision-making and considerable time • Bold presidential initiatives may well generate strong faculty opposition

45. Collective Bargaining and Academic Governance Where collective bargaining exists and where the faculty have voted to unionize -- • Terms and conditions of employment (salaries, benefits) are usually determined through collective bargaining; • Criteria and standards for personnel actions are usually determined through academic governance; and • Curriculum and related academic policies are determined through academic governance.

46. Other Groups • Students – usually have their own governance structure, may have formal responsibility for certain fees and facilities, may be represented on the governing board • Alumni -- usually have their own organization, may be organized through University Development, may be represented on the governing board • Staff – may be unionized, may have their own organization

47. Does it work?

48. I think you should be more explicit here in step two.

49. The Future of Higher Education

50. Guessing about the Future of Higher Education • Continued resource constraints for public universities, both research (UC) and comprehensive (CSU) • Increasing reliance on transfers from community colleges for first two years of undergraduate study • Increasing emphasis on private fund-raising by public universities • Continuing increases in student fees