Chapter Three Lexicon

1. Chapter Three Lexicon

2. 词汇学 • What is word? • The formation of words • Lexical change • 通过本章的学习使学生对词汇、形态学和语言的变化有所认识，了解词的定义、形成以及词汇变化。

3. 1. What is word? • A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. – A vague definition. • Three senses are involved in defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the situations.

4. 1.1 Three senses of “word” • A physical unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks, eg • Phonological: • Orthographic: It is wonderful. • Three words are recognized.

5. However, in casual speech or writing, it often becomes: • Phonological: • Orthographic: It’s wonderful. • Are they two words or three?

6. A set of forms: walk, walks, walking, walked • How many words are there? • I usually have dinner at 6 but yesterday I had it at seven. • How many times did the word “have” occur?

7. A lexical item or a lexeme • A lexical item is an entry in a dictionary. A lexemeWRITE includes all of its grammatical forms: • write, writes, writing, wrote, written

8. A grammatical unit: sentence clause phrase word morpheme • Problem: blackboard

9. 1.2 Identification of words • Stability: stable linguistic units. • chairman, but not *manchair • Relative uninterruptibility: though we recognize three components in the word disappointment, we cannot pause and add another component in between, as in *disinterestappointment. • But we can add another word between words: Paul, (John) and Mary ...

10. A minimum free form: the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, eg • —Is Jane coming tonight? • —Possibly. • Hi. • Wonderful.

11. 1.3 Classification of words • Variable vs. Invariable Words: • Variable words: they may have inflective changes. The same word may have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant. write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. • Invariable words: words which do not inflective endings. since, when, seldom, through, etc.

12. Grammatical vs. Lexical Words: • Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. • Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs. • Closed-class vs. Open-class Words: • Closed-class words: New members cannot normally be added, eg pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries. • Open-class words: New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

13. Word class: known as Parts of Speech in traditional grammar. • Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc. • Some new terms in word class: • Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc. • Auxiliary: do, have • Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.

14. Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms. • Pronoun:he, she, I, they, everyone • Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his. • Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did. • Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too. • Pro-locative: He went there.

15. Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers. • As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one. Determiner

17. Predeterminers:all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters …; double, twice, three times …; such, what (exclamative) • Central determiners:the; this, these, that, those;we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few,a little • Postdeterminers:every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozen

18. *their all trouble • *five the all boys • *all this boy • *all both girls

19. 2. Morphology • Morphology: the study of word-formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from smaller components –morphemes. purify ← pur(e) + -ify Verb ← adj. + -ify a morphological rule amplify, simplify, electrify, falsify The Grammar of Words

20. 2.1 Morphemes • The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. boys, chairman, checking, disappointment, disestablishmentarianism

21. 2.2 Types of morphemes • Free vs. Bound morphemes: • Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nation. • Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, un-. • All monomorphemic words are free morphemes. • Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are compounds: paymaster, moonwalk, babysit, godfather, sunflower.

22. Root: the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg friend as in unfriendliness. • Roots may be • free: those that can stand by themselves, eg black+board; nation+-al; or • bound: those that cannot stand by themselves, eg -ceive in receive, perceive, conceive; remit, submit, permit, commit retain, contain, maintain incur, recur, occur. • A few English roots may have both free and bound variants: sleep, slept, child, children

23. Affix: the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally divided into • prefix (dis-, un-) and • suffix(-en, -ify). • infix (feet, goose, geese, abso-bloomingly-lutely)

24. Base: a morpheme to which an affix is added, eg • A base is any form to which affixes of any kind can be added; a form to which a rule of word-formation is applied. Any root or stem can be a base, desirable is a base in undesirable, internation is a base in international. • friend root > base • friendly root/base + suffix > base • unfriendly prefix + base > base • unfriendliness base + suffix > base?

25. Stem: a morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix may be added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-es. • Inflection: grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc. • Derivation: combination of a base and an affix to form a new word, eg friend+-ly > friendly.

27. 2.3 Word-formation

28. Inflections (Inflectional morphology) The manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflection affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. Number: table/tables, apple/applescar/cars Person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talked, open/opens/opening/opened, shout/shouts/shouting/shouted Case: boy/boy’s, John/John’s, university/ university’s

29. Inflection • Nominal forms: boys, boy’s • Verb forms: wants, wanted, wanting • Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smallest • Each set constitutes a single paradigm, a set of grammatically conditioned forms all derived from a single root or stem. Inflection

30. Word formation (Lexical / Dervational morphonogy) The process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. purify → pur (e) + -ify Two types: Compound and Derivation Compound (Compositional type) : Words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. Relations between lexical words, icecream, sunrise, paperbag

31. Compounding • Two or more free roots combine to make a new word. • Noun compounds: daybreak, playboy, haircut, windmill • Verb compounds: brainstorm, lipread, babysit • Adjective compounds: gray-haired,insect-eating, dutyfree • Preposition compounds: into, throughout

32. Endocentric & exocentric • Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg • self-control: a kind of control • armchair: a kind of chair • Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg • scarecrow: not a kind of crow • breakneck: not a kind of neck

33. Written forms of compounds • Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard • Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length • Open: coffee table, washing machine • Free variation: • businessman, business-man, business man • winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle • no one, no-one, noone

34. Derivation (Derivational type) Relations between roots and affixes un + conscious → unconscious, nation + al →national, national + ize →nationalize, nationalize + ation →nationalization

35. Derivation • Class-changing: • N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discard • N>A: friendly, delightful, speechless • V>N: worker, employee, inhabitant • V>A: acceptable, adorable • A>N: rapidness, rapidity • A>V: deafen, sweeten • Adj>Adv: exactly, quickly

36. Class-preserving: • N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet • V>V: disobey, unfasten • A>A: grayish, irrelevant Class preserving

37. Sememe vs. Morpheme Sememe is the smallest component of meaning. The morpheme –s has only one sememe: PLURALITY, meaning more than one. 2.4 Sememe vs. Morpheme, and Phoneme vs. Morpheme

38. Five occasions of the relationship One morpheme vs. one sememe -less: WITHOUT. fearless, careless, countless, faceless One morpheme vs. more than one sememe a-: 1. arise, await, enhance the meaning of the original senses rise and wait; 2. awash, ablush, changes both the semantic and the grammatical catories of wash and blush, verb → adj; 3. atypical, asymmertry, no, non One sememe vs. more than one morpheme no, non: atypical, erostrate, illegal, neither, untidy

39. Morphemes that have no specific sememe en- has no specific sememe, but may help change grammatical and semantic categories. joy (adj, quality) enjoy (verb, event) cran-: cranberry --- blueberry, blackberry, cloudberry Function changes in both sememe and morpheme without morpheme change run: run a company (verb, event) in a short run (noun, thing) No morpheme change, but the sememe is changed: progress, fish, fat (verb, event / noun, thing / adj, quality)

40. Morpheme vs. phoneme Morphophonology (Morphonology, Morphonemics, Morphophonemics): a branch of linguistics that refers to the analysis and classification of the phonological factors that affect the morpheme forms and, correspondingly, the morphological factors that affect the phoneme forms. It studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.

41. A single phoneme vs. a single morpheme A single phoneme may represent a single morpheme, but they are not identical.

42. A single morpheme vs. multiple phoneme Morphemes may also be represented by phonological structures other than a single phoneme. Thus, the syllabic / phonological structure of a word and its morphemic / grammatical structure do not necessarily correspond. tell + er /te + lә / big (g) + er /bi + gә /

44. Morpheme, like phoneme, is an abstract unit, but on a higher level of abstraction. It consists of a sequence of classes of phonemes and has either lexical or grammatical meaning. Some morphemic forms represent different morphemes and thus have different sememes. The morphemic shape –s can express plurality: tables, apples, cars person / finiteness: talks, opens, shouts case: boy’s, John’s, university’s

45. Morphemic conditions Morpheme shapes vary according to both phonological conditions and to the conditions of their own. ▲ Phonologically conditioned The form or shape of morphemes may be conditioned by phonological factors.

46. /n/ (alveolar nasal) changes to /m/ (bilabial nasal) to make it more similar to /p/(bilabial stop). The assimilation of /n/ is to be conditioned by /p/.

47. grammar glamor peregrinus pilgrim marbre marble • The phoneme /r/ dissimilates to /l/. • Dissimilation refers to the influence exercised by one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.

48. ▲ Morphologicallyconditioned Morphemes can also be conditioned by morphological factors. Three requirements should be met. a. All the allomorphs should have common meaning. E.g. the plural morpheme { -s ~ -z ~ -iz ~ -ai ~ - i: ~ -n ~ - Ø }. b. All the allomorphs should be in complementary distribution. c. Allomorphs that share the common meaning should occur in parallel formation.

49. 3. Lexical change • Formation of new words • Phonological change • Morphosyntactic change • Semantic change • Orthographic change

50. 3.1 Word-formation through lexical change • Invention/Coinage • Mostly brand names: • Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Xerox, Lycra