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Incorporating and Discussing Evidence

Incorporating and Discussing Evidence. Foundation of Academic Writing: Demonstrating Research Skills. Basic Requirements of Academic Writing: Review . Strictly observe layout conventions Check spelling and grammar Observe a formal style of writing

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Incorporating and Discussing Evidence

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  1. Incorporating and Discussing Evidence Foundation of Academic Writing: Demonstrating Research Skills

  2. Basic Requirements of Academic Writing: Review • Strictly observe layout conventions • Check spelling and grammar • Observe a formal style of writing • Avoid repetition and stereotypical phrases • Arrange your paragraphs according to logical criteria and link them by observing cohesion and coherence • Discuss the facts you are dealing with from a critical standpoint • Quote conflicting arguments in an orderly manner • Present your own opinions concerning an argument in a well structured and meaningful way

  3. POOR ACADEMIC WRITING Descriptive Summarizes or paraphrases sources one by one Sweeping statements and over-generalizations Poor Academic Writing VS Good Academic Writing GOOD ACADEMIC WRITING • Central argument • Analytical • Evaluates, selects, interprets sources • Integrates sources seamlessly • Structures the evidence to support the argument

  4. Example of Poor Academic Writing • Asia has been the world’s most rapidly expanding market for food … Australian consumers are only predicted to spend an additional US$6 billion per year on food by the year 2000 (DPIE, 1994). Japan is the dominant importer, accounting for 49.2% of Asia’s total imports … a slight increase from 4.4% in 1990 to 7.1% in 1994 (DPIE, 1994). The Asian population is also starting to eat different types of foods … increasing interest in fresh fruits and vegetables (DPIE, 1994).

  5. Marketing of Asian Food Example • No context given (why is the writer telling us this?) • Single source – not justified (Is it the only source? The best source?) • Raw data – no interpretation (So what does it all mean?) • Referencing deficiencies (A reference at the end of a paragraph does not “cover” the whole paragraph)

  6. Problem: No Academic Voice • When a student over-uses secondary sources in a paragraph it may simply read as a string of quotations, devoid of the student's academic voice that “ties” the ideas together into a coherent argument.

  7. Expressing Your Academic Voice • It is important that your “academic voice” is present in your writing. • The writer's academic voice or argument is evident in the way the student introduces and interprets the evidence that supports his/her point. • The paraphrased material does not dominate the paragraph, but rather is secondary to and supports the student's argument.

  8. Example of Strong Use of Academic Voice: Say It; Support It; Explain It The inequity in the distribution of wealth in Australia is yet another indicator of Australia’s lack of egalitarianism. In 1995, 20% of the Australian population owned 72.2% of Australia's wealth with the top 50% owning 92.1% (Raskall, 1998: 287). Such a significant skew in the distribution of wealth indicates that, at least in terms of economics, there is an established class system in Australia. McGregor (1988) argues that Australian society can be categorized into three levels: the Upper, Middle and Working classes. In addition, it has been shown that “most Australians continue to remain in the class into which they were born” (McGregor, 1988, p. 156), despite arguments about the ease of social mobility in Australian society (Fitzpatrick, 1994).The issue of class and its inherent inequity, however, is further compounded by factors such as race and gender within and across these class divisions.

  9. Example of Good Academic Writing • Family studies have confirmed that the majority of canine red cell antigens are inherited as simple Mendelian dominants (Colling & Saison 1980; Ikemoto, et al. 1978;. Kamel & Ezzat, 1968; Vriesendorp, et al. 1973). Exceptions to this mode of inheritance include the closed system of NF6 and 7 (Suzuki, et al., 1975) and the Japanese D1 and D2 system (Ejima, et al., 1976), both of which appear to be controlled by codominant alleles.

  10. Canine Red Cells Example In this example: • the author has consulted a number of sources and compared them with respect to the inheritance of canine red cell antigens. • The author then presents the agreement first (simple Mendelian dominant inheritance) followed by the exceptions (rather than going through each source separately, summarizing the results and leaving it to the reader to do the comparison and interpret the findings).

  11. Meeting the Expectations • Understand what you read in relation to the set task, i.e. read with task in mind. • Be active in your approach. This means you need to engage and interact with sources, eg., ask “What does this mean in relation to my argument/ my task/ what I want to say?” • Tell your reader why the evidence is relevant and what conclusions you want them to draw.

  12. How Do You Know If You Are Meeting the Expectations? • You can assume if your mark is high then you have met the expectations! • Written feedback should allow you to find out how you could better meet the expectations for each task. • It is worth spending time reflecting on the feedback. The goal is for you to be able to judge for yourself the standard of your essay, lab or assignment.

  13. Rules for Incorporating Research

  14. 1. Examine Dates and Credentials • Is the source primary or secondary? Is enough documentation provided? • Does the author have advanced degrees and a fine reputation in the field? • When was the research conducted and where? • Does the interpretation of results seem logical and objective or does the author have a hidden agenda? • Has other research reported similar or conflicting results? What do authorities in the field generally accept?

  15. 2. Use Tentative Words to Discuss Findings

  16. 3. Restate Common Knowledge • This includes all information you were aware of before you started researching. • This applies particularly to class notes.

  17. Historical information that is not commonly known Statistics, surveys, and opinion polls Expert opinion, estimates, predictions Tables, charts, graphs, visuals Current information based on direct observation Research results and interpretations Theories, criticisms and interpretations Footnote from printed material 4. Acknowledge Everything Else

  18. 5. State Your Own Ideas and Conclusions – When???? • As a rule, informative secondary research papers do not include personal opinion or reactions. If you are unclear on this point, be sure to ask your instructor. • If your professor does ask for your critical response, provide it only after you have described your research findings in detail. Offer a logical interpretation of the evidence, taking into consideration the opinions of authorities.

  19. 6. Note-Taking and Critical Reading from Sources • Preserve the meaning of the original passage as you take notes, summarize, paraphrase, and quote. • Any informative research paper is usually expected to consist mainly of summary. Paraphrase at times and sprinkle your paper with direct quotations at appropriate intervals. One or more long direct quotations may be used. • Psychology papers tend to have NO direct quotations.

  20. Summarizing • Reduce the passage by 50 to 75 percent. • Make essentially the same points as the original. • Clearly identify the source in the first sentence of the summary. • Use synonyms to replace major words that are not generic.

  21. Plagiarized Summary • According to Mark L. Knapp, in 1900 in Berlin, Germany, Herr Von Osten purchaseda horse. When von Osten trained the horse to count by rapping his hoof, he did not know that Hans would become one of the most famous horses in history. Hans was a rapid learner and soon could do arithmetic and other tricks (1).

  22. Paraphrasing • Restate an original passage by rewording and using different sentence patterns. • Paraphrase ONLY for the following reasons: 1. To emphasize important ideas. 2. To clarify a difficult passage. 3. To combine details.

  23. Guidelines for Summaries and Paraphrases • Underline the topic sentences and key points in the original. • Rewrite, retaining the order of the original. • If you are unable to paraphrase a difficult phrase, copy and enclose in quotation marks. • Cite source and pages.

  24. Using Quotations – When??? • To present technical words for which there is no accurate paraphrase. • To avoid any doubt about the accuracy of a surprising statement or evidence. • To capture the flavor of the original. • To avoid an awkward or wordy paraphrase. • To enhance your credibility as a writer.

  25. Using Quotations – How???? • Use a signal phrase to precede the quotation and introduce the speaker as: • According to William Shakespeare… • A study by Mahmoud Aziz… • Others, like Hemingway, believe…. • Avoid weak phrases like: • A study revealed…, • Experts say…., • It is believed… • In my opinion… • I feel…..

  26. Using Quotations – How??? • A verb in a signal phrase should indicate the intent of the writer or speaker and is usually in the present tense for English papers and in the past tense for Psychology papers: • Examples: admits, concedes, discloses, holds, observes, agrees, concludes, disputes, highlights, refuses, argues, concurs, emphasizes, insists, refutes, believes, denies, finds, maintains, reveals, claims, disagrees, grants, notes, stresses, states, explains, indicates, proposes, implies, suggests, writes, rejects, supports….

  27. Avoid the Five Common Problems of Research Papers • Pulling ideas out of context • Omitting significant information • Overusing quotations • Inadequate documentation • Not distinguishing between fact and opinion

  28. Documenting Why do you have to document? • To support the points you have made in your paper • To cross-reference your sources so readers can locate your material • To eliminate incidences of plagiarism StFX’s Policy on Academic Integrity: http://libmain.stfx.ca/integrity/student/Plagiarismforstudents.htm

  29. Avoiding Plagiarism You can avoid plagiarism by: • Making a list of the writers and viewpoints you discussed in your research. • Keeping the following three categories distinct in your research notes: • your ideas (DO NOT CITE), • your summaries of other’s material (CITE), and • exact wording you copy (CITE).

  30. Sources for Academic Research Scholarly journals Periodicals Academic sources Books Peer-reviewed Works

  31. Using a Consistent Format • Using a consistent format helps your reader understand your arguments and the sources they’re built on. • It also helps you keep track of your sources as you build arguments. • You only include those references you have cited in your text.

  32. But …your professor is always right! • When in doubt, talk to your professor! • They may have their own guidelines to follow. These may be available on the individual professor’s website or on the departmental website. • Professors will often provide referencing information on the handout for your assignment

  33. Establishing Credibility • The proper use of a referencing style shows the credibility of writers; such writers show accountability to their source material. • You are part of a community of scholars who are accessing the same information sources, for example: ProQuest database.

  34. Specific Formats at StFX Sample Department Style Guides: • Anthropology Style Guide • Biology 112 Sample and their link to Biology Referencing at UBC • History Department - Click Student Information • Political Science Department • Psychology - Click Undergrad Info • Nursing papers are also specific with APA formatting. Check the course handouts • Your individual professors’ websites may also have specific guidelines on writing. These may be different from “the rules” of a particular style.

  35. In 1928, representatives of anthropological and psychological journals met to discuss the form of journal manuscripts and to write instructions for their preparation. Their goal was to create a “standard of procedures”. The American Psychological Association’s (APA) 1st edition was 60 pages The current 5th edition has 439 pages The Modern Languages Association (MLA) was established in 1883. Current membership is 30,000 members in 100 countries. Scholars share findings and discuss academic trends (MLA.org). Often used in English, History, Philosophy, Political Science, Sociology and Religious Studies. APA MLA The History of APA & MLA Styles

  36. Quotations & Paraphrases • Quotations are copied directly, word-for-word from a source. • Paraphrases are your words, based on someone else’s ideas BOTH need to be referenced!

  37. Use in-text citations when you are using direct quotations OR paraphrasing text. Use in-text citations or footnotes or endnotes. Your department or professor may have very specific guidelines APA MLA In-text citations

  38. One recent study found a genetic link to alcoholism(Bigelow, 2002). Bigelow (2002) discovered a genetic link to alcoholism. One recent study found a genetic link to alcoholism(Bigelow 42). Bigelow discovered a genetic link to alcoholism (42). APA MLA In-text citations

  39. Jones et al. (2004) discovered that . . . The research results indicate that … (Jones et al., 2004). Fred James, Howard Jones, Tom Sanfield, and Jennifer Kelsey discovered that ... (78). The research results indicate that … (James, Jones, Sanfield, and Kelsey 78). APA MLA In-text citations

  40. Hansen-Ketchum and Farrell (2004) discussed ... The ethical implications are … (Hansen-Ketchum & Farrell, 2004). Patricia Hansen-Ketchum and Denise Farrell discussed ... (102). The ethical implications are … (Hansen-Ketchum & Farrell 102). APA MLA Two Authors

  41. Whitty-Rogers, McGibbon, and Shaw (2004) maintain that … They maintain that … (Whitty-Rogers, McGibbon, & Shaw, 2004). Subsequent citations: Whitty-Rogers et al. (2004) discovered that … The research results indicate that …(Whitty-Rogers et al., 2004). Whitty-Rogers, McGibbon, and Shaw maintain that … (97) They maintain that … (Whitty-Rogers, McGibbon, and Shaw 97). Subsequent citations: Whitty-Rogers et al. discovered that ... (115). The research proved that … (Whitty-Rogers et al., 115). APA MLA Three, Four or Five Authors

  42. Alex et al. (2005) clarified the results by … The researchers clarified their results by … (Alex et al., 2005). Alex et al. (102) clarified the results by … They clarified their results by … (Alex et al. 102). APA MLA Six or More Authors

  43. Graham (as cited in Gillis & MacIsaac, 2002) described ... The researcher described … (Graham, as cited in Gillis & MacIsaac, 2002). Graham (qtd. in Gillis and MacIsaac 169) described ... The researcher described … (Graham qtd. in Gillis and MacIsaac, 169). APA MLA Dealing with Secondary Sources Only the document that YOU read (ie., Gillis & MacIsaac’s) appears on your reference page

  44. Use a semi-colon if more than one source included a paraphrased idea or information. Conceptions of personal space vary among cultures (Morris 189-95; Worchel and Cooper 34-50). APA MLA Two or more sources in one citation Conceptions of personal space vary among cultures (Morris, 1977; Worchel & Cooper, 1983).

  45. APA in-text citation for the article “Are You a Day or Night Person?”: The morning lark and night owl connotations typically are used to categorize the human extremes (“Are You,” 1989). MLA in-text citation for the article “Are You a Day or Night Person?”: The morning lark and night owl connotations typically are used to categorize the human extremes (“Are You” 11). APA MLA Anonymous Sources

  46. More than forty words Do not use quotation marks (unless they appear in the original) Indent one tab-stop Double space More than four lines of text Do not use quotations marks (unless they appear in the original) Indent one tab-stop Double space APA MLA Block Quotations

  47. Idiosyncrasies: MLA Quoting poetry Separate two lines of poetry with a dash. The dash takes the place of the punctuation: Reflecting on the “incident” in Baltimore, Cullen concludes, “Of all the things that happened there / That’s all that I remember” (11-12). Punctuation with Quotations If a quotation ends with a question mark or an exclamation mark and requires a parenthetical reference, retain the original punctuation within the quotation mark and follow with the reference and the sentence period outside the quotation mark. Dorothea Brooke responds to her sister, “What a wonderful little almanac you are, Celia!” (7).

  48. Footnotes/Endnotes (MLA & CM) • Note Entry • 1John Macquarrie, Existentialism (Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1972) 13. • Works Cited Entry • Macquarrie, John. Existentialism. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1972. • See also: http://www.aresearchguide.com/8firstfo.html (Simpson 61)

  49. Sample References APA References Canadian Nurses Association. (2002). Code of ethics for registered nurses. Ottawa: Author. Mueller, C., & Karon, S. L. (2004). ANA nurse sensitive quality indicators for long-term care facilities [Electronic version]. Journal of Nursing Care Quality, 19(1), 39-47. Retrieved October 27, 2005, from ProQuest database. Registered Nurses Association of Nova Scotia. (1997). Standards of nursingpractice. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Author. Wolchik, S. A., West, S.G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., & Lengua, L.., (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68(14), 843-856.

  50. Sample References MLA Works Cited Byatt, A. S. Babel Tower. New York: Random House, 1996. Dickens, Charles. Bleak House. 1852-1853. New York: Penguin, 1985. ---. David Copperfield. 1849-1850. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1958. Klein, Joe. “Dizzy Days.” The New Yorker 5 Oct. 1998: 40-45. Miller, J. Hillis. Charles Dickens: The World and His Novels. Bloomington: U of Indiana P, 1958. Poland, Dave. “The Hot Button.” Roughcut. 26 Oct. 1998. Turner Network Television. 28 Oct. 1998 <www.roughcut.com>. Zwerdling, Alex. “Esther Summerson Rehabilitated.” PMLA 88 (May 1973): 429-439.

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