Discussion 1: Theory

1. Discussion 1: Theory

2. Definition • a scientific theory is a set of relatedassumptions that allows scientists to use logical deductive reasoning to formulate testable hypotheses.

3. Components of the definition • a set of related assumptions • a set of related assumptions • a set ofrelated assumptions • logical deductive reasoning • testable

4. Example • cognitive dissonance theory • cognitive dissonance: uncomfortable feeling or stress caused by holding two contradictory ideas simultaneously. • "dissonant" vs. "consonant" • the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a fundamental cognitive drive to reduce this dissonance by modifying an existing belief, or rejecting one of the contradictory ideas.

5. A set of relevant assumptions • 1)the introduction of a new cognition that is dissonant with a currently held cognition creates a state of "dissonance" • 2) the magnitude of the “dissonance” relates to the relative importance of the involved cognitions • 3) dissonance can be reduced either by eliminating dissonant cognitions, or by adding new consonant cognitions. • 4) the maximum possible dissonance is equal to the resistance to change of the less "resistant cognition"; therefore, once dissonance reaches a certain level, one of the dissonant cognition will be changed or eliminated, and dissonance will be reduced. • Q: Are they relevant? Are they directly testable?

6. Logical deductive reasoning • human beings, when persuaded to lie without being given sufficient justification, will carry out the task by convincing themselves of the falsehood, rather than telling a bald lie • Q: Does it flow from the previous assumptions? Is it testable?

7. Test: through empirical research • Festinger’s experiment • students were made to perform tedious and meaningless tasks • participants rated these tasks very negatively. • after a long period of doing this, students were told the experiment was over and they could leave.

8. however, the experimenter then asked the subject for a small favor. • the participant was asked to fill in as a research assistant and try to persuade another subject that the dull, boring tasks the subject had just completed were actually interesting and engaging. • some participants were paid $20 for the favor, another group was paid $1, and a control group was not requested to perform the favor.

9. when asked to rate the peg-turning tasks later, those in the $1 group rated them more positively than those in the $20 group and control group. • Q: Is this explainable by the cognitive dissonance theory? How is the result related to the theory?

10. More than one testable hypotheses • other ways of forming the hypotheses • people who feel dissonance will seek information that will reduce dissonance and avoid information that will increase dissonance • people who are involuntarily exposed to information that increases dissonance are likely to discount that information, either by ignoring it, misinterpreting it, or denying it.

11. Why different theories? • alternate theories exist because the very nature of a theory allows the theorist to make speculations from a particular point of view. • observations are colored by the individual observer’s frame of reference, so there may be many diverse theories.

12. What makes a theory useful • generates research: generates a number of hypotheses that can be investigated through research. • descriptive research • hypothesis testing • organizes data into a meaningful structure, provides an explanation for the results, and help ask further questions. • Integrate knowledge into an intelligible framework • shape as many bits of information as possible into arrangement

13. What makes a theory useful • falsifiable: can be confirmed or disconfirmed • be precise enough • negative research results: refute the theory; suggest discard or modify it • guides action: provide the practitioner with a guide to action • internally consistent • components logically compatible • consistent use of language • parsimonious: be as simple as possible

14. Dimensions of personality • determinism vs. free choice • pessimism vs. optimism • causality vs. teleology • conscious vs. unconscious determinants of behavior • biological vs. social influences on personality • uniqueness vs. similarities

15. Personality assessment • personality inventories • reliability: does it yield consistent result? • validity: does it measure what it intends to measure? • Construct validity: the extent to which an instrument measures some hypothetical construct such as intelligence, extraversion, etc. • Convergent validity • Divergent validity • Discriminant validity • Predictive validity: the extent that a test predicts future.