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Memory Management in Operating Systems

This chapter covers the basics of memory management in operating systems, including swapping, virtual memory, page replacement algorithms, design and implementation issues, and segmentation.

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Memory Management in Operating Systems

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  1. Memory Management 4.1 Basic memory management 4.2 Swapping 4.3 Virtual memory 4.4 Page replacement algorithms 4.5 Modeling page replacement algorithms 4.6 Design issues for paging systems 4.7 Implementation issues 4.8 Segmentation Chapter 4

  2. Agenda • 4.1 Basic memory management • 4.2 Swapping • 4.3 Virtual memory • 4.4 Page replacement algorithms • 4.5 Modeling page replacement algorithms • 4.6 Design issues for paging systems • 4.7 Implementation issues • 4.8 Segmentation

  3. Memory Management • Ideally programmers want memory that is • large • fast • non volatile • Memory hierarchy • small amount of fast, expensive memory – cache • some medium-speed, medium price main memory • gigabytes of slow, cheap disk storage • Memory manager handles the memory hierarchy

  4. Basic Memory ManagementMonoprogramming without Swapping or Paging Mainframes and Minicomputers PDAs and Embedded Systems PCs and MS-DOS Three simple ways of organizing memory - an operating system with one user process

  5. Multiprogramming with Fixed Partitions Used for many years on OS/360 or OS/MFT (Multiprogramming with Fixed number of Tasks) • Fixed memory partitions • separate input queues for each partition • single input queue

  6. Modeling Multiprogramming CPU Utilization = 1 – p n CPU utilization as a function of number of processes in memory Degree of multiprogramming

  7. Analysis of Multiprogramming System Performance • Arrival and work requirements of 4 jobs • CPU utilization for 1 – 4 jobs with 80% I/O wait • Sequence of events as jobs arrive and finish • note numbers show amout of CPU time jobs get in each interval

  8. Relocation and Protection • Cannot be sure where program will be loaded in memory • address locations of variables, code routines cannot be absolute • must keep a program out of other processes’ partitions • Use base and limit values • address locations added to base value to map to physical addr • address locations larger than limit value is an error

  9. Agenda • 4.1 Basic memory management • 4.2 Swapping • 4.3 Virtual memory • 4.4 Page replacement algorithms • 4.5 Modeling page replacement algorithms • 4.6 Design issues for paging systems • 4.7 Implementation issues • 4.8 Segmentation

  10. Motivation • Fixed memory partitions • Good for batch systems • Simple and effective • For Time Sharing systems and PCs • There may not be enough main memory to hold all the currently active processes. • Therefore, excess processes must be kept on disk and brought in to run dynamically.

  11. Swapping (1) Memory allocation changes as • processes come into memory • leave memory Shaded regions are unused memory

  12. Swapping (2) • Allocating space for growing data segment • Allocating space for growing stack & data segment

  13. Memory Management with Bit Maps • Part of memory with 5 processes, 3 holes • tick marks show allocation units • shaded regions are free • Corresponding bit map • Same information as a list

  14. Memory Management with Linked Lists Four neighbor combinations for the terminating process X

  15. Agenda • 4.1 Basic memory management • 4.2 Swapping • 4.3 Virtual memory • 4.4 Page replacement algorithms • 4.5 Modeling page replacement algorithms • 4.6 Design issues for paging systems • 4.7 Implementation issues • 4.8 Segmentation

  16. Motivation • What if the size of one program (process) is bigger than the whole physical memory? • Split the program into pieces (called overlay) • Active overlay (or even in some systems overlays) would be brought into memory • Programmer was involved in this process • The programmer had to split the program into pieces. • Solution → Virtual Memory • Text + Data + Stack may be bigger than physical memory • Only bring in the parts that are currently being used.

  17. Virtual MemoryPaging (1) The position and function of the MMU

  18. Paging (2) The relation betweenvirtual addressesand physical memory addres-ses given bypage table

  19. Page Tables (1) Internal operation of MMU with 16 4 KB pages

  20. Problem with Page Tables • Need for large and fast page mapping • Depending on the size of the virtual memory supported and the size of each page, page tables may grow really big • With 32 bit virtual address and 4KB page size • We will have 220 (232-12) page table entries of each 32 bit long → we need 4MB of memory • Too expensive to be implemented as registers • Too much memory wasted if not many pages are actually being used in the program (imagine just using 3 pages!)

  21. Page Tables (2) Second-level page tables • 32 bit address with 2 page table fields • Two-level page tables Top-level page table

  22. Page Tables (3) Typical page table entry

  23. TLBs – Translation Lookaside Buffers A TLB to speed up paging

  24. Problem with Page Tables • If we have 64 bit virtual address with 4KB page size • Page table with 252 (264-12) entries • If each page table entry needs 8 bytes, then the page table is over 30 million gigabytes • What if we have one entry for each page frame instead of each virtual page • The physical memory is much smaller

  25. Inverted Page Tables Comparison of a traditional page table with an inverted page table

  26. Agenda • 4.1 Basic memory management • 4.2 Swapping • 4.3 Virtual memory • 4.4 Page replacement algorithms • 4.5 Modeling page replacement algorithms • 4.6 Design issues for paging systems • 4.7 Implementation issues • 4.8 Segmentation

  27. Page Replacement Algorithms • Page fault forces choice • which page must be removed • make room for incoming page • Modified page must first be saved • unmodified just overwritten • Better not to choose an often used page • will probably need to be brought back in soon

  28. Optimal Page Replacement Algorithm • Replace page needed at the farthest point in future • Optimal but unrealizable • Estimate by … • logging page use on previous runs of process • although this is impractical

  29. Not Recently Used Page Replacement Algorithm • Each page has Reference bit, Modified bit • bits are set when page is referenced, modified • Pages are classified • not referenced, not modified • not referenced, modified • referenced, not modified • referenced, modified • NRU removes page at random • from lowest numbered non empty class

  30. FIFO Page Replacement Algorithm • Maintain a linked list of all pages • in order they came into memory • Page at beginning of list replaced • Disadvantage • page in memory the longest may be often used

  31. Second Chance Page Replacement Algorithm • Operation of a second chance • pages sorted in FIFO order • Page list if fault occurs at time 20, A has R bit set(numbers above pages are loading times)

  32. The Clock Page Replacement Algorithm • Although second chance is a reasonable algorithm, it is unnecessarily inefficient • It constantly moves pages around on the list • A better approach is to keep all the pages on a circular list

  33. Least Recently Used (LRU) • Assume pages used recently will used again soon • throw out page that has been unused for longest time • Must keep a linked list of pages • most recently used at front, least at rear • update this list every memory reference !! • Alternatively keep counter in each page table entry • choose page with lowest value counter • periodically zero the counter

  34. Another Possible Hardware Implementation LRU using a bitmap matrix – pages referenced in order 0,1,2,3,2,1,0,3,2,3

  35. Problems with HW LRU • Not easy or inexpensive to implement in HW • Simulation in SW • Not Frequently Used (NFU) Algorithm • Add the reference bit to the counter corresponding to each page at each clock interrupt. • Problem: It never forgets anything! • Aging Algorithm • Favors to those recently referenced. • Right shift 1 bit and then add the R bit to the left side

  36. Simulating LRU in Software • The aging algorithm simulates LRU in software • Note 6 pages for 5 clock ticks, (a) – (e)

  37. The Working Set Page Replacement Algorithm (1) • Motivation: • Most programs randomly access a small number of pages, but this set changes slowly over time. • The working set • The set of pages used by the k most recent memory references • w(k,t) is the size of the working set at time, t • Approximation: instead of the last k references, use the execution time.

  38. The Working Set Page Replacement Algorithm (2) The working set algorithm

  39. The WSClock Page Replacement Algorithm Operation of the WSClock algorithm

  40. Review of Page Replacement Algorithms • The best ones are aging and WSClock! • Based on LRU and working set, respectively • Both give good paging performance. • Both can be implemented efficiently.

  41. Agenda • 4.1 Basic memory management • 4.2 Swapping • 4.3 Virtual memory • 4.4 Page replacement algorithms • 4.5 Modeling page replacement algorithms • 4.6 Design issues for paging systems • 4.7 Implementation issues • 4.8 Segmentation

  42. Modeling Page Replacement AlgorithmsBelady's Anomaly • FIFO with 3 page frames • FIFO with 4 page frames • P's show which page references show page faults

  43. Stack Algorithms State of memory array, M, after each item in reference string is processed 7 4 6 5

  44. Agenda • 4.1 Basic memory management • 4.2 Swapping • 4.3 Virtual memory • 4.4 Page replacement algorithms • 4.5 Modeling page replacement algorithms • 4.6 Design issues for paging systems • 4.7 Implementation issues • 4.8 Segmentation

  45. Design Issues for Paging SystemsLocal versus Global Allocation Policies (1) • Original configuration • Local page replacement • Global page replacement

  46. Local versus Global Allocation Policies (2) Page Fault Frequency (PFF) Algorithm Page fault rate as a function of the number of page frames assigned

  47. Load Control • Despite good designs, system may still thrash • When PFF algorithm indicates • some processes need more memory • but no processes need less • Solution :Reduce number of processes competing for memory • swap one or more to disk, divide up pages they held • reconsider degree of multiprogramming

  48. Page Size (1) Small page size • Advantages • less internal fragmentation • better fit for various data structures, code sections • less unused program in memory • Disadvantages • programs need many pages, larger page tables

  49. Separate Instruction and Data Spaces • One address space • Separate I and D spaces

  50. Shared Pages Two processes sharing same program sharing its page table

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