Module 2: Gender and ageing

UNECE Sub-regional workshop on gender statistics Tbilisi, Georgia 27-29 September 2010 Module 2: Gender and ageing Eszter Zólyomi

Structure of the presentation • The gender dimension of poverty – an example for the use of gender-disaggregated data for making and monitoring ageing-related policies • Gender-specific mainstreaming ageing indicators • Data collection and related challenges

I. The gender dimension of poverty An example for the use of gender-disaggregated data for making and monitoring ageing-related policies

The context • Women • in general spend less time in the formal labour market • are more likely to work in atypical forms of employment (i.e. part-time, temporary work) • more likely to engage in unpaid work (due to caring resposibilities) • earn on average less over their life • face occupational segregation • in general retire earlier Build up lower entitlements to pension benefits Many women face a real threat of poverty and social exclusion in their post-retirement phase of life Women typically live longer than men

Data and poverty measures • EU-SILC 2007 • Reference year: 2006 • Sample size: 513,907 (total), 82,958 (65+) • Country coverage: EU 24 (RO, BG, MT – not part of EU-SILC; IS, NO – not EU) Poverty measures and indicators: • Income poverty: At risk of poverty rate • Material deprivation: Material deprivation rate

Definitions of poverty indicators used At risk of poverty rate: It shows the share of people with equivalised disposable income below the at risk of poverty threshold set at 60% of the national median equivalised disposable income after social transfers. Defined as the enforced lack of at least three of the nine following items • ability to face unexpected expenses, • ability to pay for one week annual holiday away from home, • existence of arrears (mortgage or rent payments, utility bills, or hire purchase installments or other loan payments), • capacity to have a meal with meat, chicken or fish every second day, • capacity to keep home adequately warm, • possession of a washing machine, a colour TV, a telephone or a personal car (4 items) Material deprivation rate:

Risk of poverty among the elderly is generally higher than that of the overall population and of the working age populationbut there are a few exceptions % Source: Own calculations based on EU-SILC 2007

Elderly women face a higher risk of poverty than menSignificant differences across countries % Source: Own calculations based on EU-SILC 2007

Women Men The older the poorer? Poverty risk for women is higher than for men both in the age groups of 65-74 and 75+ After 75: Significant increase for both women and men in DK, BE, UK and CY More so for women in SK, SE, AT, SI, FI, IE, LT, EE, LV Larger increase for men in EL, PT, ES, Decrease for women in NL, for men in HU, IT and LV For both in LU and PL % Source: Own calculations based on EU-SILC 2007

Living aloneincreases the risk of povertyboth for older women and men % Some 59% of all single-person households in the EU are made up of women Elderly women account for between 43 and 72% of female single-person households in the EU Women make up two thirds of elderly single households in the EU Source: Own calculations based on EU-SILC 2007

Gender differences are important, but... There are larg(er) variations in poverty rates within the elderly population when looking at • educational attainment (tertiary vs. primary/lower secondary • hh type (single vs. couple households) • marital status (married vs. never married) How changes in educational attainment (higher for younger age cohorts), household composition (single households on the rise), or in marital status (growing share of never married or divorced population) will affect poverty levels of future women and men retirees? Source: Own calculations based on EU-SILC 2007 Note: Values show percentage points

Trends in elderly female poverty - 2005 and 2008Significant increase in the Baltic countries Source: Eurostat – EU-SILC

At risk of poverty rate vs. Material deprivation rateRelative vs. Absolut measure %  Poverty rate % Source: Eurostat and Own calculations based on EU-SILC 2007

Objective measure vs. Subjective measureAt risk of poverty rate vs. Personal perception Note: Poverty data refer to total population Survey question (QA44.2): Select what best describes the situation of your household (poor, neither poor nor rich, rich) Source: Eurobarometer Special Survey on Poverty and Social Exclusion - 72.1 (2010), and own calculations based on EU-SILC 2007

Why the higher old age poverty of women? • Age effect – indexation of pensions in payments important for women because they tend to live longer than men (adequate safety nets in retirement) • Cohort effect – shorter labour market history, unpaid work, career breaks (provision of pension credits for caring responsibilities – children, elderly relatives) Lower pension ages for women result in fewer years of pension contributions (equalisation of pension age) • Compositional effect – many widows among older age groups of women (survivors´ benefits) • Lowest gender differentials in poverty - the case of the Netherlands • universal, residence-based basic pensions • wage indexation • periods of childcare are automatically covered • same pension age for women and men • generous survivors´ benefits

II. Gender-specific mainstreaming ageing indicators

The Project: Mainstreaming Ageing: Indicators to Monitor Implementation (MA:IMI), Phase II (2008-2012) The Task: Developing a set of gender-specific mainstreaming ageing indicators and Collecting data on them

Further Information European Centre for Social Welfare Policy and Research (Affiliated to the United Nations) Bergasse 17 I A-1090 Vienna www.euro.centre.org www.monitoringRIS.org E-mail: zolyomi@euro.centre.org

The social and economic situation of women and men is not the same since they are affected differently by social and demographic changes.

II. Gender-specific mainstreaming ageing indicators Regional Implementation Strategy (RIS) for the Madrid International Plan of Action on Ageing (MIPAA) Commitment 8: “To Mainstream a Gender Approach in an Ageing Society“ Four main policy objectives: • Achieve full gender equality • Realise full equality between women and men and in their contribution in the economy • Ensure gender equality of access to social protection and social security systems • Promote shared responsibilities of women and men within their families.

Developing the indicators • Women • in general spend less time in the formal labour market • are more likely to work in atypical forms of employment (i.e. part-time, temporary work) • more likely to engage in unpaid work (due to caring resposibilities) • earn on average less over their life • face occupational segregation • in general retire earlier Build up lower entitlements to pension benefits Many women face a real threat of poverty and social exclusion in their post-retirement phase of life • labour market participation • earnings • work and family life reconciliation • parental leave and benefit • childcare • transition from work to retirement • pensions poverty indicators • At the same time… • change in traditional family and gender roles • change in individual and family life formation • increase in women´s participation in higher education • increase in women’s participation in the formal labour market • decline in fertility rates • individual and family life • education • demographic context Women typically live longer than men

II. Gender-specific mainstreaming ageing indicators 1. Demographic context 1.1. Gender gaps in longevity, and life expectancy gains 1.2. Individual and family life patterns 2. Education and labour market participation 2.1. Educational attainment 2.2. Participation 2.3. Time use 2.4. Labour market segregation and the earnings gap 3. Reconciliation of work and family life 3.1. Work flexibility 3.2. Parental leave and benefit payment 3.3. Childcare 4. Retirement and Pensions 5. Poverty

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes GDEM Longevity GDEM1a Gender gap in life expectancy at birth and at age 65 UN life tables, UN World Population Prospects 1950-2005 GDEM1b Life expectancy gains, by gender UN life tables, UN World Population Prospects 1950-2005 (gains in number of years and days) 1. Demographic context1.1. Gender gaps in longevity, and life expectancy gains

Life Expectancy at Birth - the Gender Gap, 2006 UN-European Region (incomplete) In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Life Expectancy Gains of Women and Men Over the Last 50 Years: A Global Comparison Additional Number of Years from 1950-1955 to 2000-2005 In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes GLIFE Individual life patterns GLIFE1a Timing of fertility (% of women having a first live birth by age 25) UNECE Family and Fertility Surveys (FFS) Different birth cohorts from late 1940s onwards to mid 1990s GLIFE1b The postponement of first marriage and motherhood UNECE Family and Fertility Surveys (FFS) 1980-2001 GLIFE1c Expected ultimate family size by gender UNECE Family and Fertility Surveys (FFS) Women aged 20-24 with no children GLIFE1d Important demographic events that happened to women and men by age 25 UNECE Family and Fertility Surveys (FFS) Different birth cohorts 1. Demographic context1.2. Individual and family life patterns

The Postponement of First Marriage and Motherhood, 1980-2001 Change of Mean Age at First Marriage and Mean Age of Women at the Birth of the First Child in Years In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes GLIFE Family life patterns GLIFE2a Extramarital births (number of births outside marriage as a % of total live births) Eurostat 1960 and 2009 GLIFE2b Divorce rate Eurostat 1960 and 2009, 1960-2009 GLIFE2c Number of lone parent families as a % of families with dependent children Eurostat, EU-SILC Whiteford (OECD) 2003-2007 1980-2005 1. Demographic context1.2. Individual and family lifepatterns

Lone Parent Families, 1980-2005 In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

II. Gender-specific mainstreaming ageingindicators 1. Demographic context 1.1. Gender gaps in longevity, and life expectancy gains 1.2. Individual and family life patterns 2. Education and labour market participation 2.1. Educational attainment 2.2. Participation 2.3. Time use 2.4. Labour market segregation and the earnings gap 3. Reconciliation of work and family life 3.1. Work flexibility 3.2. Parental leave and benefit payment 3.3. Childcare 4. Retirement and Pensions 5. Poverty

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes GEDU Educational attainment Tertiary educational graduates (women per 100 men) UNECE Gender Statistics Database, Eurostat 1980-2008 1998-2007 2.Education and labour market participation2.1. Educational attainment Governments should promote the advancement and empowerment of women to achieve sufficient education.

The Silent Revolution in Tertiary Educational Attainment Young Women Graduates Outperforming Young Men - By Very Far, 2000 and 2006 Tertiary Educational Graduates, Women per 100 Men In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Measures should be taken to promote the economic rights of women including their access to employment and appropriate working conditions, and to encourage and increase the participation of women in the labour market.

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes GLM Participation GLM1a Full-time equivalent (FTE) employment rate Eurostat; UNECE Gender Statistics Database, ILO 1999-2009 GLM1b Gender employment gap by age groups Eurostat, LFS; UNECE Gender Statistics Database, ILO 1980-2007 GLM1c Employment rate of women and men by number of children and by age of youngest child UNECE Gender Statistics Database Eurostat, LFS, 1980-2007 GLM1d Employment gap of women and men with children UNECE Gender Statistics Database Eurostat, LFS, 1980-2007 GLM1e Gender unemployment gap by age groups Eurostat, LFS; UNECE Gender Statistics Database, ILO 1980-2007 GLM1f Average actual and usual weekly working hours of employed persons, by gender (full-time and part-time) ILO Eurostat, LFS 1999-2008 2008-2009 2. Education and Labour market participation2.2. Participation

The Gender Employment Gap, 2008 In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Full-Time Equivalent (FTE) employment, 2007 Female employment rate (15-64) Female full-time equivalent employment rate (15-64)

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes GLM Time use GLM2 Time spent in paid vs. unpaid work activities by gender, age groups, economic activity and household type UNECE Gender Statistics Database, Eurostat, EU-SILC Harmonised European Time use Survey 1980-2008 2003-2007 2. Education and Labour market participation2.3. Time use Promote measures to facilitate equal sharing of family and care responsibilities between women and men.

Time Use of Employed Women and Men by Paid and Unpaid Work, 2000-2006 In Hours per Day In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes GLM Horizontal segregation GLM3a Persons employed in private vs. public sector UNECE Gender Statistics Database 1990-2001 GLM3b Employment by sector of activity, by gender UNECE Gender Statistics Database 1990-2006 Vertical segregation GLM4 Gender gap in socio-economic power Eurostat, LFS; UNECE Gender Statistics Database 1980-2007 Earnings gap GLM5 Gender pay gap, and earnings difference by age, occupation, length of service Eurostat, Structure of Earnings Survey UNECE Gender Statistics Database 2002, 2006 1990-2008 2. Education and Labour market participation2.4. Labour market segregation and the earnings gap Ensure equal pay for equal work or work of equal value for women and men, and protect women against any form of gender-related discrimination in the labour market.

Gender Pay Gap, 2006 Percentage Difference of Average Gross Hourly Payment of Female/ Male Paid Employees In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Appropriate measures to facilitate the reconciliation of family life with paid work for both women and men.

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes CoWF Work flexibility CoWF1a Part-time employment, by gender and age groups (voluntary/involuntary) Eurostat, LFS UNECE Gender Statistics Database 1980-2009 CoWF1b Temporary employment, by gender and age groups Eurostat, LFS 1998-2009 CoWF1c Remuneration of special leave days Eurostat, LFS, Ad-hoc modules 2005 3.Reconciliation of work and family life3.1. Work flexibility

Part-time Employment Rates for Women, 2006 As a Percentage of Total Employment and Its Breakdown to Voluntary / Involuntary Part-time Employment In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes CoWF Parental leave and benefit payment CoWF2a Length of parental leave (paid / unpaid) International Review of Leave Policies, 2008 2008 CoWF2b Parental benefit in % of AW (net benefit as a % of net earning) International Review of Leave Policies, 2008 2008 CoWF2c Paternity leave (length and benefit ) International Review of Leave Policies, 2008 2008 CoWF2d Parental benefit (individual / family right) International Review of Leave Policies, 2008, MISSOC Database, 2008 2008 CoWF2e Parental leave flexibility International Review of Leave Policies, 2008, MISSOC Database, 2008 2008 3.Reconciliation of work and family life3.2. Parental leave and benefit payment

Parental/Maternity Leave: Length of Leave and Benefit Payment, 2008 In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Group/Subgroup Definition Source Notes CoWF Childcare CoWF3a Main type of childcare used Eurostat, EU-SILC 2006 2005-2007 CoWF3b Children in formal childcare by age and duration Eurostat, EU-SILC 2006 2005-2007 CoWF3c Availability of childcare (number of kindergartens, public and private) National Administrative Sources 3.Reconciliation of work and family life3.3. Childcare Provision of affordable and high-quality care facilities for children.

Main Type of Childcare Used, 2005 Childcare Used by Employed Persons for Own/Spouse's Children In Marin, B./ Zólyomi, E. (Eds.) (2010)

Module 2: Gender and ageing