Comparative Politics: Domestic Responses to Global Challenges, Seventh Edition by Charles Hauss

1. Comparative Politics: Domestic Responses to Global Challenges, Seventh Edition by Charles Hauss Chapter 15: Nigeria

4. Learning Objectives After studying this chapter, students should be able to: • Explain why the text’s author thinks the crisis in Nigeria is unexpected • Explain reasons for the extreme poverty of most Nigerians in spite of the natural wealth of the country • Describe the connection between identity (ethnic) politics and high-stakes politics in Nigeria • Describe the major effects of imperialism and colonialism on present-day Nigeria • Identify the elements of “indirect rule” used by the British to manage Nigeria as a colony • Explain the role of identity (ethnic) politics in all the regimes since independence • Differentiate between the causes of failure of the First and Second Republics • Identify similarities in the causes of failure of the First and Second Republics • Describe in general the characteristics of Nigeria’s military regimes • Distinguish between the characteristics of mass political culture and elite political culture • Describe the violent challenges to the government and the regime in various parts of the country • Explain why political parties in Nigeria have been neither catch-all parties nor ideological parties • Describe the role of corruption at grassroots and national levels • Explain why Nigeria’s status as a rentier state both allows it to resist structural adjustment and makes it vulnerable to global economic fluctuations • Explain why the generally free press has had so little influence on Nigerian politics and governance

7. A Crisis Where There Should Not Be One • 2009 Nigeria was in economic slump, but should not have been • Africa’s most populous country, leading producer of oil and natural gas • 70% of population lives below poverty lines • Delighted with Obama’s election, wanted Nigeria to be first stop for Obama’s visit to Africa

8. A Crisis Where There Should Not Be One • Umaru Yar’Adua first successful transfer of civilian power • Coinciding with 2009 economic crisis, Nigeria faced: • A drought • Boko Harim violence

9. Thinking about Nigeria • Huge population—one in five Africans is Nigerian • Fertile soil • Well-educated elite • Vast oil and gas reserves • State could not maintain law and order

10. Thinking about Nigeria Poverty • In lowest quarter of poor countries • Dependence on oil • Economy shrank 40% in 1980’s due to decline in revenues • Low life expectancy • 9% of Nigerian children do not reach age 1 • Malnutrition • Lack of healthcare • Lack of access to safe drinking water • Urban population growth • Total population growth • 7% of arable land currently farmed

11. Thinking about Nigeria Ethnicity and Religion • 400 ethnic groups • Hausa-Fulani (North) • Yoruba (West) • Igbo (East) • Middle Belt • Half Muslim, 40% Christian, rest are religions that antedate the arrival of the Arabs and Europeans • Multiplicity of languages, English • Chop-chop politics

12. Thinking about Nigeria High Stakes Politics • High unmet expectations of government • Alternation of military and civilian regimes resulting in few established institutions • Spoils of office are high

13. Thinking about Nigeria Key Questions • How is the legacy of colonialism reflected in Nigerian politics? • What role does ethnicity play in reinforcing the country’s difficulties? • Why does Nigeria remain one of the poorest countries in the world despite its massive oil and natural gas reserves? • How have frequent shifts from civilian to military rule and back again exacerbated the country’s many social and economic problems?

14. The Evolution of the Nigerian State • The slave trade cost the Nigerians and their fellow Africans countless millions of people • Colonization created new borders that made ethnic conflict inevitable

16. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Before the British • Numerous well-developed political, cultural, and economic systems • By 13th century most converted to Islam • By 13th century king consolidated rule over Hausa states in North • Elaborate trading network extending to Baghdad • Yoruba kingdoms in West and Southwest (and neighboring Benin) • Igbo self-governing villages under accepted constitution in the Southeast and Niger Delta

17. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Before the British • Slave Trade • 15th century Portuguese • Other European countries engaged in slave trade in the 17th century due to sugar cane plantations • Booming by mid-18th century • Upwards of 1 million Nigerians were impacted • Slave trade ended after British abolition in 1833 and U.S. Civil War

18. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Before the British • British colony at Lagos as base for trade in early-19th century • Palm oil • Unification of Germany and Italy in 1870’s increased pressure to colonize • International Berlin West Africa Conference (1885) • European nations’ glory and balance of power in play • Europeans wanted new markets • Christian missionaries • Ignored different civilianization

19. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Colonialization • British manipulated conflicts using economic pretexts • Sir George Goldie • In 1906, British destroyed the remnants of the Fulani Empire and established authority in the North. • Single Nigerian colony in 1914 • “Nigeria” term coined by the British

20. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Colonial Rule • 1914 single Nigerian colony, administered North and South differently • Indirect rule in the North • Traditional colonial regime in the South • “Dual Mandate” • Education system by missionaries with government support (mostly in South) • Created a new Nigerian elite • Made possible a domestic, critical press • Southerners filled most of the bureaucratic positions

21. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Colonial Rule • British tried to make colony self-supporting • Introduced cash crops; forced colony to import food • Each region specialized in a different crop • Colonial industries made wage laborers out of Nigerian producers • Taxes and customs were imposed on imported goods • Regional differences heightened

22. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Independence • First drive for independence came with WWI • British had created “tribes” where none existed in order to rule • Served as base of support for parties to steer the path to independence • 1920 National Congress of British West Africa • Herbert Macaulay founded Nigerian National Democratic Party (1923) • Nigerian Youth Movement founded (1933) • Began talking about a united and free Nigeria

23. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Independence • 1929 Stock Market Crash lessened demand for colonial goods • Nigerians paid $1 million in taxes in 1934 and only a ¼ of the colonial budget went to social serves • WWII made independence inevitable • Macaulay and Nnamdi Azikiwe founded National Council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (1944) • British promulgated constitution (1946) • 1948 “Nigerianization” of civil service • October 1960 elections and independence • Corruption in politics started • Shared power within a regional framework intensified regional differences

24. The Evolution of the Nigerian State The First Republic • Traditional parliamentary system • Federal system—national government shared power with three (later four) regional governments • Nigerian political culture unsuited to adversarial system in parliamentary democracy, no unified opposition or majority • Partisan politics had an ethnic base • Corruption over how resources were distributed • Pursuit of power united politicians

27. The Evolution of the Nigerian State The First Republic • High stakes politics and corrupted elections led to overthrow of regime • 1963 census • Parliamentary and regional elections of 1964 and 1965 • Fraud, intimidation, and violence

28. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Military Rule I • Justified by the need to restore order • Army: 1960—90% British expatriates, 1966, 1966—90% Africans, mostly Igbo • Civil war over East trying to create Republic of Biafra • Obasanjo continued preparations for civilian rule

29. The Evolution of the Nigerian State The Second Republic • Presidential system • Government-licensed political parties • Government lifted ban in 1979 and gave them only three months to form • Similar to First Republic parties • State and federal elections of 1979 relatively free and honest • Oil price collapse and economic disaster • Corrupt, violent elections (1983) • Military stepped in again

31. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Military Rule II • Widely accepted due to the level of corruption • Decree Numbers 2, 3, and 4 • Economic crisis due to oil revenues drop • Counter coup: Just as ruthless • Structural adjustment • Phased transition to democracy

32. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Military Rule III • 1993 Elections • Politicians who held office in the First and Second Republics were prohibited from running in at least the first set of elections • Presidential candidates business leaders with close ties to military • Military nullified the election • Abacha’s rule • More authoritarian than previous military regimes • As corrupt as any government • Abubakar took over when Abacha died and announced plans for a speedy return to democracy

33. The Evolution of the Nigerian State Fourth Republic • 1999 election of Obasanjo—For the first time in 30 years, popular support and enthusiasm • 2007 election of Yar’Adua—For successful transfer of civilian power

34. Political Culture Mass Political Culture • People dissatisfied with political system • People prefer democracy to other regimes, but skeptical • Fragmented and polarized populace • Ethnic identities matter more than Nigerian • Religious identities important • Regional identities also important • Poor masses and rich elite • Urban – rural division • Rejection of “all men are created equal” • Illiteracy in the countryside

35. Political Culture Elite Culture • Bourgeois class controls state through wealth and insider status • Willing to violate “rules” of democratic culture to maintain status

36. Political Culture Non-electoral Participation • Two sets of incidents in summer 2009 • MEND and the Niger River Delta • Boko Haram • Unique in the fact that they were both rural • Few and far between, interest groups not organized along ethnic lines

37. Political Culture Political Parties and Elections • Until 1999 political parties banned because they contributed to Nigeria’s problems • The elections of 1999 and 2003 • Parties associated with military leaders • Difficult to identify issue positions • The elections of 2007 • Parties still related to ethnic parties of First Republic, doing a little better in building consensus across ethnic lines • Presidential candidate must have ¼ of votes in 2/3 of the states • Hard to tell where parties fall on national issues

38. Political Culture Political Parties and Elections • Until 1999 political parties banned because they contributed to Nigeria’s problems • The elections of 1999 and 2003 • Parties associated with military leaders • Difficult to identify issue positions

40. The Nigerian State • The institutions have rarely lasted for more than a few years • Weakness of state to ensure law and order • Does not have many resources—82% of its revenue comes from sale of oil or profits from multinational petroleum companies • Spoils of the control of the state

41. The Nigerian State Nigeria Today • American-style presidency • Not responsible to National Assembly • President appoints its own cabinet • Responsible for managing day-to-day operations • Commander-in-chief of the armed forces • National Assembly similar to U.S. Congress • Two houses: One single member districts, one composed of state representatives • Anglo-American style judiciary • Network of local and state courts with a Supreme Court • Sharia appellate court option for states

42. The Nigerian State The Personalization of Power • Person in position more important than formal responsibilities and powers of office • Doubts about President Yar’adua stem from his lack of power base- disputed ballot • Corruption is widespread

43. The Fragile Nigerian State Federalism • Subdivided to blunt ethnic conflict • Every substantial ethnic group can control its “home” territory • Duplication of services and bureaucracies • Preserved ethnic divisions

44. Public Policy Democratization • “Turnkey governments” • Babangida’s failure • Commitment questionable • Banned political parties from First and Second Republics • Phased four-year transition • Decentralized system • Government would license political parties • Federal election commission • 1993 elections honest, but government rejected them and Abacha took over

45. Public Policy Democratization • Abubakar and Obasanjo • So far successful movement to democracy began in 1999 • Abubakar retired in May 1999 • Election and reelection of Obasanjo in 1999 and 2003 beginnings of stability • Election Yar’Andua has not helped long-term prospects • Criticisms of his victory • Part of elite since his childhood

46. Public Policy Economic Development • No dramatic steps to improve standard of living, economic failure reflects corruption • Export of “primary” products • Cost of imported goods have increased—food, manufactured goods, and all investment capital • Plummeting oil prices late 1980’s; up in 2008 and down again in 2009

47. Public Policy Economic Development • Value of Naira unstable, has caused debt to increase • Import substitution has not worked well • Aid from government and private sources infrastructure improvements and steel industry • Aladja mill never operated at more than 20 percent of capacity • Skilled labor in short supply • Agricultural production has not increased • Structural adjustment’s record is mixed

48. Public Policy Economic Development • Structural adjustment’s record is mixed • Babangida’s two-year structural-adjustment program • Goals: expand exports, reduce imported goods, achieve self-sufficiency in food production, increase role of private sector • Tariffs were reduced • Today there is more investment capital, but debt remains high and interest on loans take up 1/3 of the budget • Economic control outside of country or in hands of elite

49. Feedback • Relatively free press (even under military regimes) • Various military regimes have cracked down • Low literacy rate • Few can afford to buy a newspaper • State has struggled to find a balance between fostering national unity and the new constitution’s provision that states could establish/own radio and TV stations

50. Nigeria and the Plight of the Third World • Should there be a Nigeria? • Prospects for national reorganization in Africa very unlikely • Solutions will have to come within current national boundaries