China

1. China The World’s Leading Manufacturer of Chinese People

2. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Legitimacy • Dynastic Rule (ancient history – 1911) • Power passed through hereditary connections • “Mandate of Heaven” – collective ancestral wisdom guiding the empire from the heavens • When a family dynasty was perceived as weak, a rival family would challenge, claiming the emperor had lost the mandate

3. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Legitimacy • Revolution of 1911 and Chinese Republic • Dynastic cycles toppled due to European intrusion • Supposed to be democratic, but government was regularly challenged by regional warlords • Mao and the People’s Republic (1949-1976) • Mao Zedong and ideology of egalitarian Marxism • Mao himself served as the unifying source of legitimacy • Maoism insisted on “mass line” – leaders must listen to and stay connected to peasants

4. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Legitimacy • Modern China (1976-Present) • Legitimacy centers in the Politburo of the CCP • Central Military Commission within the CCP controls the military (another important source of legitimacy)

5. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Historical Traditions • Authoritarian Power – has always been ruled by a single emperor or a small group • Confucianism – emphasizes the importance of order and harmony, encourages Chinese people to submit to and obey authority • Also places responsibility on rulers to exercise power conscientiously (democratic centralism?) • Contradicts egalitarian Marxism

6. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Historical Traditions • Bureaucratic hierarchy based on scholarship – ruling elite are organized and selected based on academic exams • Government jobs have always been highly coveted • Created social separation between peasants and bureaucratic elite • The “Middle Kingdom” – belief that China is the center of civilization, and foreigners are perceived as inferiors with nothing to offer

7. Sovereignty, Authority, and Power • Historical Traditions • Communist ideologies – Maoism integrated ethics of Confucianism with egalitarianism, later revised by Deng Xiaoping to allow for privatization

8. Political Culture • Geography • Access to oceans and warm water ports • Many large navigable rivers • Major geographic divides between north and south • Geographic isolation of the western part • Separated from other countries by mountain ranges, deserts, and oceans

10. Political Culture • Historical Eras • Dynastic Rule (Confucianism, ethnocentrism) • Resistance to Imperialism 19th Century (nationalism) • “foreign devils” – Europeans and Japanese who attempted to exploit China’s natural resources • Evidence of caution and suspicion of capitalist countries remains

11. Political Culture • Historical Eras • Maoism (linked to Marxism/Leninism, but distinctly Chinese) • Collectivism – good of the community above the individual • Struggle and activism • Mass Line • Egalitarianism • Self-Reliance – don’t rely on elites, use your own talents to contribute to your community

12. Mao Zedong Chairman of the CCP 1943-1976 Chairman of the Central Military Commission 1954-1976

13. Political Culture • Historical Eras • Deng Xiaoping Theory • “Black cat, white cat, who cares as long as it catches mice?” • Communist and capitalist ideologies were not important • What matters is improving the economy • Still emphasizes party supervision and control of all activity in the country

14. Deng Xiaoping Chairman of the Central Military Commission 1981-1989

15. Political Culture • Importance of Informal Relationships • Power and respect is not necessarily tied to official position in the party, but who has connections to whom • Early connections established during the Long March built later ruling cliques • Patron-client system exists amongst competing party factions • Policy changes can be predicted with knowledge of relationships to past leaders

16. Political and Economic Change • Long history of stability until 20th century mirrors Russia • Differs from Russia in having a much longer history of regional hegemony • Dynastic cycles dictated change until Mongols conquer China in 13th century • Mandate of heaven recaptured by Ming dynasty • Last dynasty was Qing (“pure”) from 17th century until it was toppled by European pressure in 20th

17. Political and Economic Change • Control by Imperialistic Nations • Qing dynasty weakened and China was carved into “spheres of influence” by England, Germany, France, and Japan (foreign devils) • Revolutionary Upheaval (1911-1949) • Nationalism – Sun Yat-sen leads a nationalist revolution reestablishing independent China in 1911 • Establishment of a new political community • Chiang Kai-shek founds the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang or KMT) • Mao Zedong founds the CCP • Socioeconomic Development – modeled after Soviets, then Chiang becomes president and breaks with them, outlawing the CCP

18. Chiang Kai-Shek Chairman of the Nationalist Government of China, 1928-1931, 1943-1948 Director General of Kuomintang, 1938-1975

19. Political and Economic Change • The Long March (1934-1936) • Chiang’s Nationalist army pursued Mao’s army across China to depose and exile communists • Mao eluded him and used the time traveling to spread his message to Chinese peasants • Mao becomes a national hero, people involved in the Long March become prominent in government of the People’s Republic

20. Political and Economic Change • Founding of the People’s Republic of China (1949-1966) • Occupied by Japan until end of WWII • Civil War between Kuomintang and CCP • Chiang flees to Taiwan, Mao establishes People’s Republic on mainland, both claim to be the true government of China (“Two Chinas”)

21. Political and Economic Change • Founding of the People’s Republic of China (1949-1966) • Soviet model of political/economic development (1949-1957) • Land reform – redistribution of property • Civil reform – attempted to end opium addiction and expand women’s rights (like the right to leave an unhappy arranged marriage) • Five-Year Plans – nationalization of industry and collectivization of agriculture

22. Political and Economic Change • Founding of the People’s Republic of China (1949-1966) • Great Leap Forward (1958-1966) • Attempt to end Soviet domination of China • All-around development of agriculture and industry • Mass mobilization – turn the Chinese population into an asset through motivation and harder work • Political unanimity and zeal – party workers began running government, not bureaucrats • Cadres – low level party workers expected to demonstrate Party devotion by motivating hard work • Decentralization – more local, less central control

23. Political and Economic Change • The Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) • From 1960-1966, Mao allowed Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping to institute market reforms • Dissatisfied with results, decided to radically transform China and remove all vestiges of hierarchy and inequality • Principles • Ethic of struggle • Mass line • Collectivism • Egalitarianism • Unstinting service to society • Destroyed universities and libraries, scholars were sent to the fields to work and “learn” from peasants • Elementary education designed to create equality and loyalty to Mao

24. Signs from the Cultural Revolution • “Destroy the Old World, Build a New World”

25. Signs from the Cultural Revolution • “Let new socialistic culture conquer every stage” • Features Jiang Qing, who led the Cultural Revolution Group of the Politburo

26. Signs from the Cultural Revolution • “We will crash the dog heads of those who oppose Chairman Mao!”

27. Political and Economic Change • Death of Mao (1976) • Followers in CCP divided into 3 factions • Radicals – led by Mao’s wife Jiang Qing, continued supporting goals of Cultural Revolution • “Gang of Four” – group of radicals who controlled CCP policy toward the end of Mao’s life • Military – had been led by Lin Biao, Mao’s designated successor, but he died in a mysterious plane crash in 1971 • Rumors of an attempted coup around same time • Moderates – led by Zhou Enlai, emphasized economic modernization and limited contact with the West • Factions were built on ideology and personal connection (guanxi)

28. Jiang Qing • First Lady of the PRC, 1939-1976 • Leader of the Radical faction of the CCP

29. Lin Biao • Vice-Premier of the PRC, 1965-1971

30. Zhou Enlai • Premier of the PRC, 1949-1976 • Leader of the moderate faction of the CCP

31. Political and Economic Change • Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernizations (1978-1997) • CCP leader Hua Guofeng arrests the “Gang of Four” radicals, opening the door for moderates to take control • Deng takes power in 1978 (without official title of Chairman of CCP), modernizing: • Industry • Agriculture • Science • The Military

32. Political and Economic Change • Deng Xiaoping’s Four Modernizations (1978-1997) • “Open Door” trade policy – trade with everyone, including capitalist U.S. if it will benefit Chinese economy • Expansion of higher education, raised academic standards • Institutionalization of the Revolution – reconciled revolutionary goals with legal system and bureaucracy of Old China, decentralized government

33. Deng Xiaoping, later in life Cryptkeeper, 1989-1997 (Just kidding)

34. Summary of “Four Generations” of Chinese Leadership • 1st Generation – Mao Zedong (1949 - 1976) • 2nd Generation – Deng Xiaoping (1978 – 1997) • 3rd Generation – Jiang Zemin (1997-2005) • 4th Generation – Hu Jintao (2005 – Present)

35. Jiang Zemin • President of the PRC, 1993-2003 • General Secretary of the CCP, 1989-2002 • Chairman of the Central Military Commission, 1990-2004

36. Hu Jintao • President of the PRC, 2003-Present • General Secretary of the CCP, 2002–Present • Chairman of the Central Military Commission, 2004-Present • Orderly, struggle free succession indicated stability in CCP practices

37. Citizens, Society, and the State • Cleavages • Ethnicity • Population is over 90% Han Chinese • Minorities live primarily in autonomous areas (like Tibet and Xinjiang) • These areas are 60% of Chinese territory • Long history of resistance to Chinese government • Tibetans – government never recognized Chinese government authority after conquest • Uighurs – Muslim separatists in Xingjiang near Afghanistan • Government usually encourages economic development, while suppressing expression of dissent

38. Han Chinese Tibetan Uighur

39. Citizens, Society, and the State • Cleavages • Urban vs. Rural • Redefinition of “Two Chinas” – differences in economic prosperity and lifestyle • Declaration of Prime Minister Wen Jiabao of a “new socialist countryside” – program to lift rural economy

40. Citizens, Society, and the State • Political Participation • The Chinese Communist Party • Largest Party in the world, 58 million members (8% of people over 18) • CCP Youth League has 70 million members • Cadres of Mao have been replaced by technocrats under Deng’s reforms • Technocrat – people with appropriate technical skills and training to work in bureaucracy • Jiang opened party membership to capitalists to “better represent all of China” (2001) • Party is not ideological, but an instrument through which people can advance their personal situation

41. Citizens, Society, and the State • Political Participation • Civil Society • Control of party has loosened with new technology (cell phones, internet, satellite dishes, etc.) • Many new associational groups dedicated to individual issues springing up • Ex. Environmental groups protesting dam construction • Won’t “win”, but still demonstrate ability to organize without government • Beijing allowed NGOs to register with government in 1990s • Still closely watched by government (especially religious and human rights movements) • Ex. Falun Gong, banned in China

43. Citizens, Society, and the State • Political Participation • Protests • Allowed to an extent, but met with severe crackdown if the party’s authority is called into question • Tiananmen Square (1989) • Protest by students for democratic reform, eventually attracted many other civil society groups • Spread to many other areas of China than Beijing • Deng ordered People’s Liberation Army (PLA) expel the protesters from the Square, resulting in massacre

44. Political Institutions • CCP Organization • Hierarchical • National • Province • County • Village/Township • Power concentrated at top in Politburo and General Secretary

45. Politburo Standing Committee 7 members General Secretary Politburo 24 members Central Committee -340 members -Meet once a year • National Party Congress • More than 2000 members • Chosen from lower level • Congresses • -Meets once every 5 years

46. Political Institutions • Other political parties • Eight “democratic” parties are allowed to exist • Each based on a special group, like intellectuals, businessmen, etc. • Total membership of half a million people • Serve an advisory role to CCP, non-oppositional • Other attempts at independent party formation result in harsh prison sentences • Elections (yes, elections) • CCP runs elections to help legitimacy • Party reviews candidate list to eliminate objectionable ones • Only held at local level of government, deputies for county People’s Congresses, town and village officials (since 1980’s)

47. Political Institutions • The Political Elite • Personal connection, “guanxi,” holds politics together • Elite recruitment occurs through nomenklatura – higher party leaders choose leaders at lower levels to move up • Patron-client network throughout government

48. Political Institutions • Factions within CCP • Conservatives – believe power of government has eroded too much, support crackdowns on independent thinkers • Reformers/Open Door – support capitalist infusion, pushing for WTO membership and expansion of trade with U.S. • Jiang, Hu, and Wen all come from this faction • Liberals – support political liberalization, out of power since Tiananmen in 1989 • Premier Zhao Ziyang ousted for sympathizing with protesters • Fang-shou – cyclical tendency of factions to grow and fade in power, similar to dynastic cycles