Ecosystem Restoration and Valuing Natural Services

1. CHAPTER 7 The Use and Restoration of Ecosystems

2. Introduction to ecosystem restoration Pacific halibut live in northern parts of the Pacific Ocean In bottom waters of the continental shelf It has supported a commercial fishery since the 1800s It has been heavily regulated since the 1920s The fishing fleet fished until the total allowable catch (TAC) was reached In 1990, the season lasted only six days Intensive fishing caused lost and damaged gear Endangered the crew and vessels

3. A new management strategy for halibut Canada and the U.S. adopted the individual quota (IQ) management strategy Owners of vessels were allocated a percentage of TAC They decide when to fish within the season The number of vessels decreased Income increased Fish stocks improved This strategy involved the fishing community

4. Ecosystem capital Biomes: reflect organism responses to climatic conditions Terrestrial biomes: forests and woodlands, grasslands and savannas, croplands, wetlands, desert lands, and tundra Oceanic ecosystems: coastal ocean and bays, coral reefs, open ocean Human economy and well-being directly depend on exploitation of natural goods (provisioning services) Ecosystems provide all food, fuel, wood, fibers, etc. Natural services (regulating and cultural services) process energy and circulate matter

5. Services from various types of ecosystems

6. Ecosystems perform natural services Normally functioning ecosystems provide free natural goods and services Global ecosystems provide $41 trillion/year A functioning mangrove swamp provides $14,450/acre Storm protection, forest products, spawning grounds If converted to a shrimp farm, it provides $3,376/acre But pollution and land degradation cost $2,200/acre For a net income of $1,175/acre! Benefits of conversion are local, short, and specific Loss of services is regional, long-term, and diffuse

7. Shrimp aquaculture farms in Thailand

8. Ecosystems as natural resources If natural services are so valuable, why are they destroyed? A natural area is protected only when the society values its services higher than the value assigned to a direct human use of the resource Natural resources: natural ecosystems and their biota Are expected to produce something of value The most commonly understood value is economic Referring to natural systems as resources makes it easy to lose sight of their ecological value Ecosystem capital avoids this mistake

9. Valuing ecosystems Markets assess economic value But not the monetary value of ecosystem services Instrumental value works for provisioning services of ecosystems (timber, fish, crops) Regulating and cultural services (ecological services) are less local and harder to price They are public goods, essential for human well-being Cutting forests provides immediate economic benefits But has a long-term loss in regulating and support services

10. Private vs. public lands Natural ecosystems are maintained when they provide the greatest economic (direct-use) value for their owners Corporate-owned Maine forests are used for lumber and paper Land sold to developers would become house lots Some ecosystems are publically owned (state, federal lands) or cannot be owned (oceans) They are still exploited Sustainable exploitation maintains natural services Ecosystems can also be restored

11. Domesticated nature Humans have dominated most landscapes 50% of the land is now used for crop and livestock production Half of the world’s forests have been lost Domesticated ecosystems still provide services But at our consent and for our benefit As populations increase, so will pressures on ecosystems Maintaining ecosystem capital will become harder The ability of ecosystems to sustain future generations can no longer be taken for granted 15 of 24 natural services are declining worldwide

12. Conservation, preservation, restoration Renewable resource: ecosystem’s and biota’s ability to regenerate Ecosystems can replenish themselves They are sustainable Conservation of biota and ecosystem manages or regulates use so it does not exceed the capacity of the species or system to renew itself Has a well-defined goal

13. Preservation is not conservation Its goal is to ensure species and ecosystem continuity regardless of their potential utility May preclude making use of the species or ecosystem Old-growth (virgin) forests must be preserved (not cut) Second-growth forests can be conserved (cut sustainably) Conservation and preservation can conflict Endangered Muriqui monkeys of Brazil need second-growth forests Conservation of forests is essential for preservation of this monkey

14. Muriqui monkey

15. Patterns of human use of natural ecosystems Consumptive use: people harvest natural resources for food, shelter, tools, fuel, clothing Not in a country’s calculated market economy People barter or sell goods to meet their own needs This “wild income” is important to the world’s poor Bush meat: wild game in Africa that provides protein Largely unregulated and involves poaching Contributes to the decline of 30 endangered species Commercially killed primate meat is found in New York, London, Paris, etc.

16. Consumptive use

17. Productive use Productive use: the exploitation of ecosystem resources for economic gain Products are harvested and sold An important source of revenue and employment For example, commercial trade in wood products generated $468 billion in 2006 Employing 13.7 million people Wild animals and plants provide initial breeding stock Sources of genes for crop plants or animals Sources of new medicines

18. Productive use

19. The four types of tenure Consumptive and productive uses of natural ecosystem resources are the consequences of the rights of tenure (property rights) over land and water Private ownership: restricts access to natural resources Commercial ownership: permits use of natural resources by members of the community State ownership: implies regulated use Open access: resources can be used by anyone Each has the potential for abuse or stewardship

20. Maximum sustainable yield The central question in managing a renewable resource: How much continual use can be sustained without undercutting the ability for renewal? Maximum sustainable yield (MSY): the highest possible rate of use the system can match with its own rate of replacement or maintenance MSY applies to harvesting biota, air/water quality, soils Used in timber cutting, fishing, park visitation, pollution MSY is just before the point at which use begins to destroy the system’s regenerative capacity

21. Optimal populations Carrying capacity of an ecosystem: the maximum population the ecosystem can sustainably support A population below carrying capacity grows This yield can be harvested In a population approaching carrying capacity, competition between individuals reduces recruitment In a population near or at carrying capacity, thinning reduces competition and obtains optimal growth MSY is not obtained with a population at the carrying capacity

22. Maximum sustainable yield

23. Obtaining MSY is difficult The optimal population for harvesting at MSY is halfway to the carrying capacity Using MSY is complicated Carrying capacity and optimal population vary Replacement of harvested individuals varies Humans adversely affect habitats, carrying capacity, sustainable yields, etc. Accurate estimates must be made Data on population size and recruitment rates are often hard to obtain

24. The precautionary principle MSY is used to set a fixed quota In fisheries, it’s the total allowable catch (TAC) Inaccurate data overestimate TAC Fishers and politicians pressure to keep harvests high With uncertainties, overuse, and resource depletion, managers turn to the precautionary principle: where there is uncertainty, managers must favor resource protection Exploitation limits are set below MSY Conflicts arise between users and managers

25. Using the commons A common-pool resource: owned by many people Or by no one (open access) Commons: a system with open access Use by one does not subtract from use by others Examples: knowledge, federal grasslands, fisheries, groundwater, atmosphere, some forests Exploitation of the commons causes serious problems Tragedy of the commons: ruin of the resource Sustainability: maintaining common-pool resources to yield benefits for present and future users

26. Garrett Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons Original commons: pastures used by anyone to graze cattle Whoever grazed the most cattle benefited the most Those who reduced their cattle suffered lost profits The commons were overgrazed Problems arise With open access to a common-pool resource But with no (or an ineffective) regulating authority Along with no functioning community Then profit becomes the only motive in exploiting a resource This tragedy can be avoided only by limiting access

27. Limiting freedom Private ownership can mitigate the tragedy of the commons Restricts access to a renewable natural resource It should be exploited to guarantee continued harvest But this theory does not work when an owner maximizes immediate profit (e.g., corporations) Regulating access to a commons allows for Protection for sustained benefits Fairness in access Mutual consent of the regulated Best if locally controlled by those who benefit most

28. Maine lobsters Lobsters are found in Northern Hemisphere cold marine waters The lobster fishery is a common-pool resource Management of Maine’s lobster fishery involves state and local regulation State: establishes laws protecting juveniles and breeding females and sets the number of traps allowed Fishers: know and monitor each other and determine who can fish in a given area The state fishery is thriving, despite more fishers

29. Exploiting the commons

30. Public policies To achieve objectives of conservation when harvesting living resources Consider the concepts and limitations of MSY Consider the social and economic factors causing overuse and degradation Establish and enforce protective public policies Natural resources can be sustainably used Sometimes exploitation and degradation have gone too far Restoration ecology: restoration of damaged ecosystems

31. Ecosystem restoration Restoration ecology repairs damaged lands and waters Returning ecosystem integrity, resilience, productivity A worldwide, $70 billion industry A thorough knowledge of ecosystem and species ecology is essential to successful restoration efforts Ecological problems that can be solved include Soil erosion, strip mining, wetland draining, hurricane damage, agricultural use, deforestation, overgrazing

32. Everglades restoration Comprehensive Everglades Restoration Plan (CERP) Approved by Congress in 2000 Will take 36 years and $11 billion Funded by federal and state governments, tribal and local agencies Managed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Created the system that makes restoration necessary The Everglades has been reduced to half its size through development and wetlands draining It holds wildlife refuges and national parks

33. The Everglades restoration plan

34. In bondage Water in Florida slowly moves south from Lake Okeechobee The river of grass: 40 miles wide, 100 miles long Viewed as an unproductive swamp People built levees, locks, dams, spillways Cities and sugar croplands divert water Winter water shortages leave too little for natural systems Summer rains divert too much water to the Everglades Agricultural runoff of nutrients (phosphorus) has degraded the water Invasive species have overrun native vegetation

35. Water release Goals of the 1996 task force to restore the Everglades “Getting the water right” (CERP’s role) Restoring, protecting, preserving habitats and species Promoting compatibility of natural and human systems The plan calls for removing levees and canals Capturing water through reservoirs and wells Restoring the river of grass to a healthy system will address the second goal

36. Land buyout In 2008, U.S. Sugar agreed to sell its land and facilities to the state of Florida for $1.7 billion 187,000 acres southeast of Lake Okeechobee Water stored in recreated wetlands will flow into the Everglades during the dry season Because of the 2008-2009 recession, this plan was scaled back to $530 million for 72,500 acres Future options allow the state to buy more land

37. Pending restorations As values of natural ecosystems becomes recognized, efforts to restore damaged or lost ecosystems become more important Large systems are the focus of restoration projects California Bay Delta, Chesapeake Bay, Platte River Basin, the Mississippi Delta Other restoration sites include the Galápagos Islands, Illinois River, Brazilian Atlantic forest, Tampa Bay

38. Forest ecosystems under pressure Forests grow in areas receiving enough precipitation for tree growth The most productive land systems They perform vital natural services Conserve biodiversity, moderate climate, prevent erosion, store carbon and nutrients, provide recreation Provide goods: lumber, paper, fodder, fibers, gums, latex, fruit, berries, nuts, fuel The major threat: not only exploitation but total destruction

39. Forest resource assessments The UN’s 2009 State of the World Forests found that Forests cover 30% of total land area Deforestation (the removal of forest and replacement by another use) continues The most important product is wood, and plantation forests have increased 9% of the world’s forests are protected and 65% have protection as a designated function Recognition of forest roles in climate change The 2010 report will use high-resolution satellite images

40. World forest biomes

41. Net changes in forest area

42. Forests as obstacles Forests are obstacles to conversion to pastures and agriculture land Consequences of clearing a forest Reduced productivity, nutrients, biomass, biodiversity Erosion and drying of soil Changed hydrologic cycle Loss of a major carbon dioxide sink Loss of forest products and livelihood of people Countries manage forests in many different ways

43. Logging operations

44. Types of forest management Silviculture: the practice of forest management For crop production (hardwood, pulp, etc.) Rotation: a cycle of decisions about a stand of trees From its early growth to harvest Even-aged management: trees of a uniform age are managed, cut down, and then replanted Clear-cutting: removing an entire stand at one time Clear-cutting creates a fragmented habitat Impacts biodiversity and ecosystems Efficient and does not need much management

45. Other management methods Uneven-aged management: results in a more diverse forest Uses different harvesting strategies Selective cutting: some mature trees are removed Leaves diversity and ecosystem functions Replanting is unnecessary Shelter-wood cutting: mature trees are cut in groups Leaves some trees to provide seeds and shelter seedlings These methods need more management and skill but can lead to a sustainable forest

46. Sustainable forestry Sustained yield: production of wood is the primary goal Wood is harvested without destroying the forest Similar to MSY: maximize harvest rates Ignores ecosystem properties of forests Sustainable forest management: managing forests as ecosystems Maintains forest biodiversity and integrity Meets social, economic, cultural, and spiritual needs of present and future generations

47. Elements of sustainable forest management Forest resources: reduce deforestation, restore landscapes, maintain carbon storage, support conservation efforts Biological diversity: conserve all levels of diversity Forest health and vitality: protect from fire, pests, etc. Productive functions: wood and nonwood products Protective functions: provide valuable ecosystem services Socioeconomic functions: cultural, spiritual, recreational Legal, policy, and institutional framework: fair and just use of forests; proper law enforcement

48. Tropical forests Deforestation of tropical forests is of special concern They provide habitat for millions of species Between 1960 and 1990, 20% was converted to other uses Countries need economic development They also have rapid population growth The major cause of deforestation: conversion to pastures and agriculture Governments encourage colonization of forested lands Indonesia, Africa, Brazil After slowing, deforestation rates are once again rising

49. Forests provide revenue Developing countries sell logging rights to multinational logging corporations They harvest timber without regard to regeneration Chinese and other Asian companies log millions of acres in Belize, Suriname, Papua New Guinea Weak regulations and corruption Millions of people live in forests or on their edges Extracting forest goods There are encouraging trends in forest management in developing countries

50. Encouraging trends in forest management Practicing sustainable management: 6% of tropical forests are under a formal management plan Designating areas for conservation: 11% of forests Establishing plantations for wood or other products: reduces pressure on natural forests Setting aside extractive reserves for nontimber uses Preserving forests as part of a national heritage or for tourism: can generate more money than logging Putting forests under control of indigenous people: to use sustainably