The Rise and Fall of the Frankish Empire: Quest for Political Order in Post-Classical Western Europe

1. POST CLASSICAL WESTERN EUROPE FROM 476 TO 1453 C.E. FROM PERIPHERAL REGION TO NASCENT GREAT POWER

2. QUEST FOR POLITICAL ORDER AFTER 476 CE • Germanic kingdoms • Visigoths dominated Spain, from 470's to early 8th century • Ostrogoths dominated Italy, the 5th century to 530's • Lombards invaded, ruled Italy, 550's to the mid-8th century • Franks, Burgundians controlled Gaul, Netherlands • Angles, Saxons, Jutes established kingdoms in Britain • Political Culture • Germans organized around tribes, families • Personal loyalty to king, local noble not state • Warrior aristocracy assisted royalty • Masses of Germans were free peasants with duties to king • Center of Europe shifted from Italy to northern area • Area in Northern France, Western Germany, Netherlands • Towns declined, only non-German structure was the church • Most Germans were Arian Christians but tolerated Catholics

3. EUROPE c. 526 – 600 C.E.

4. RISE OF THE FRANKS • The Franks • Settled in Belgium, Northern France, Western Germany • Developed group identity during the 3rd century C.E. • Politically inexperienced, little exposure to Roman society • Clovis • A strong military and political leader • Eliminated last vestiges of Roman authority in Gaul • Launched military campaigns against other Germanic peoples • Built the most powerful and dynamic state in western Europe • Clovis's conversion • Most Germans were Arian Christians • Converted to Arianism by St. Ulfias before migration • Hostile to Catholics but generally tolerant if taxes paid • The Franks converted to Roman Christianity • “In Hoc Signet Vince” – in this sign conquer • Alliance with Catholics greatly strengthened the Franks

5. CHARLEMAGNE • The Carolingians • Merovingian leaders lost control after Clovis's death • Carolingians asserted authority, the early 8th century • Charles Martel • Mayor of the Palace, chief official under Merovingian kings • Stops Muslim invasion of Europe, 732 at Battle of Tours • Pepin becomes king, 751 • Pope appointed Pepin as King of the Franks • Invaded Italy to save Pope from the Lombards • Pope allows Franks to reign as King of Italy • Pepin grants the area in Italy around Rome to Pope • Charlemagne (reigned 768-814 C.E.) • Charles Martel's grandson, founder of Carolingian empire • Control extended to northeast Spain, Bavaria, north Italy • Rulers of eastern Europe, southern Italy paid tribute • Administration • Capital city at Aachen (in modern Germany) • Relied on aristocratic deputies, known as counts • Used missi dominici to oversee local authorities • Charlemagne as emperor • Pope Leo III proclaimed Charlemagne emperor, 800 • Coronation strained relations with Byzantine emperors

6. THE RISE OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE

7. BREAKUP OF THE FRANKISH EMPIRE • Louis the Pious (re. 814-840) • Charlemagne's only surviving son, lost control of the counts • His three sons divided the empire into three kingdoms, 843 • Invasions • Muslims raided Mediterranean coasts • Conquered Spain, Sicily, Sardinia • Raided coasts of S. France, S. Italy • Magyars invaded from the east • Vikings invaded from the north • The Vikings • Scandinavian homelands - Norway, Denmark, and Sweden • Raided regions from Russia to Spain • Established colonies in Iceland, Greenland, Canada • Conquered parts of England, Ireland, Scotland, France • Outstanding seafarers • Fleets could go to interior regions via rivers • Attacked towns and villages; favorite targets were Christian

8. VIKINGS, MAGYARS, AND ARABS

9. NEW REGIONAL STATES • England • Small Keltic, German kingdoms merged into larger realm • Fought Scandinavian raids • King Alfred (reigned 871-899) expanded to the north • Alfred's successors controlled England c. mid-10th century • Germany and Italy • After Carolingian empire, local lords took control • King Otto I (reigned 936-73) defeated Magyars in 955 • Imposed authority in Central Europe • Ruled Germany, Netherlands, Burgundy, Austria, Switzerland • Suzerain lords over Northern Italy, Slovenia, Czech lands • Led armies to support the papacy in Italy • Otto's crowned emperor by pope in 962 • France • Counts and other local authorities became local lords • Vikings settled in northern France • Nobles elect Counts of Paris as King to replace Carolingians • Spain and Southern Italy • Spanish Christian states in North warred against Muslim caliphs • Southern Italy patchwork of loyalties; eventually overrun by Normans • East Central and Northern Europe • Vikings establish three kingdoms: Denmark, Norway, Sweden • Poland and Hungary are large border states in east

10. EUROPE c. 1000 C.E.

11. FEUDAL SYSTEM • Lords and vassals • Lord owned land, needs soldiers • Trades land for service • Grants of land called fiefs • Vassal provided defense • Received livelihood from land • Vassals provided military equipment • Vassals owed lord: • Loyalty, obedience, respect, counsel • Military service when called into service • Lords often made smaller grant to others • Called sub-division of fief • Lowest, service owning noble was a knight • Church often made vassals of soldiers for defense • Church could hold land as a vassal to a lord • Church often held land in own right • Women could be vassals, own fiefs but not fight • Feudal politics • Multi-layered network of lord-vassal relationships • Political stability depended on discipline, control • Lords, knights often had conflicting loyalties

12. TWO FEUDAL STATES FRANCE HOLY ROMANEMPIRE

13. MANORALISM: ECONOMIC FEUDALISM • Serfdom • Difference between peasants, serfs • Peasants were free, owned their own land • Serfs not free, could not own land • Serfs, peasants lived similar lives • Serfs as an intermediate category • Began under Romans • Diocletian bound people to occupations • Serfdom arose during invasions, marauders • Slaves, peasants frequently intermarried • Free peasants became serfs for protection • Serfs' obligations • Labor service and rents in kind • Could not move without permission • Serfs had right to work on land, pass job to heirs • Serfs often drafted as foot soldiers in feudal armies • Manors • Principal form of agricultural organization • Manor was a large estate controlled by lord • Many lords could execute serfs for serious misconduct • Manors were largely self-sufficient communities • Trade: luxuries, manufactured products, finished goods • Serfs had to work lord’s land first, before their own plots

14. ECONOMY OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE • Agriculture • Agricultural production suffered from repeated invasions • Small wooden plows of Mediterranean farmers did not work well in the north • Heavy plows • Heavy plows appeared in 6th century, could turn soils • Common from 8th century, production increased • Cultivation of new lands, watermills, and rotating crops • A rural society • Agricultural surplus not enough to support large cities • Towns were few and sparsely populated • Trade • Trade, urban centers began to develop, 10th century • Trade arose in Mediterranean, North Sea, Black Sea • Population • In 200 C.E., European population stood at 36 million • In 400 C.E., 31 million • In 600 C.E., 26 million • In 800 C.E., edged up to 29 million • In 900 C.E., 30 million • By 1000 C.E., back to 36 mil

15. THE AGE OF FAITH • Post-Classical Western Europe as An Age of Faith • Every aspect of life was dominated by the Church • Rulers were crowned by the “Grace of God” • Political rule viewed as divinely sanctioned • All Christians were expected to tithe to the church • Education, art dictated by Church ideals • Calendar organized by faith holidays • Fair prices, economic practices dictated by church • All answers to questions were dictated largely by faith • Law was largely dictated by religion • Serious matters submitted to Church for arbitration, resolution • Popes, clergy held enormous power • Church held lands independent of many rulers • Church lands could not be taxed • Church lands were often enormously wealthy • Bishops could not be installed by secular rulers • Secular rulers appealed to Rome for mediation • Clergy could not be tried in secular courts • Popes could deprive kings of their thrones • Separate canon law for church • Social Hierarchy of the Church • Commoners could rise to leading positions • Social background often unimportant in church • Women in church had enormous influence • Symbols of the Post-Classical Age of Faith • The Cathedral • The Crusades • The Pilgrimage • The Monastery

16. CONVERSION TO CHRISTIANITY • The Franks and the Church • Franks viewed as protectors of the papacy • Charlemagne worked to spread Christianity • Reconquered parts of Spain from Muslims • Charlemagne forced Saxons to convert • Built churches, schools, monasteries • The spread of Christianity • Popes took an active roll in sending out missionaries • Pagan ways did not disappear immediately • Scandinavia, Baltic lands were last to convert • Pagan rituals often blended into Christianity • Cities, towns largely Christian but countryside weakly so • By 1000 C.E., western Europe was Roman Christianity • Irish, Mozarabic rites of Christianity accepted by Pope • Arian Christianity eliminated by Franks

17. THE PAPACY • Pope Gregory I (590-604 C.E.) • Organized defense of Rome against Lombards' menace • Reasserted papal primacy over other bishops • Strongly emphasized the sacrament of penance • The conversion of England • Gregory's missionary campaigns in western Europe • First converted English kings • By 800 C.E., England securely in the Roman church • Rise of Church as a Temporal Power • Popes claimed that the spiritual powers were superior to temporal • Italy lacked any great power; city-states constantly quarreled • German emperors at war with nobles; French kings too weak • Pope played one side off another, acquired lands in Italy • Many European bishops acquired lands, became part of feudalism • In Germany, owned 10% of the best lands • In Spain, Baltic spiritual military orders led wars on pagans • Papal Powers • Spiritual head of all Christians including aristocrats, royalty • Weapons included excommunication, interdict, canon law • Economically received tithe, freedom from taxation, owned great economic wealth • Popes became head of reform movements • Abolished simony, insisted on celibacy of priests, reformed monasteries • Established College of Cardinals to elect popes not kings, mobs • Popes Gregory VIII and Innocent III defied, deposed kings • Popes launched crusades against Muslims, heretic Christians, some Italians

18. MONASTICISM • Origin • Christians practiced asceticism in deserts of Egypt, 2nd and 3rd century • Monastic lifestyle became popular when Christianity became legal • Monastic rules • St. Benedict (480-547 C.E.) provided a set of regulations • Virtues of Benedictine monks: poverty, chastity, and obedience • Western monastic rites differed from Eastern rites • Western rites emphasized work, prayer, service to the poor • Eastern rites were relatively isolated, dedicated to prayer but not outside contacts • St. Scholastica (482-543 C.E.) • St. Benedict's sister, a nun • Adapted the Rule, and provided guidance for religious life of women • The roles of monasteries • Became dominant feature in social and cultural life of western Europe • Accumulated large landholdings but spread knowledge • Wealthy patrons donated land to monks for monasteries • Taught peasants, serfs techniques of farming • Cleared forested lands, planted them • Organized much of rural labor for agriculture • Provided a variety of social services • Inns and shelters for travelers and refugees • Orphanages, medical centers • Schools, libraries and scriptoria • Monks served needs of rural population

19. RISE OF REGIONAL STATES • The Holy Roman Empire • New Emperors • Otto of Saxony rose in northern Germany by the mid-10th century; Pope John XII proclaimed him emperor in 962 • Later emperors warred alternately with powerful dukes, popes for influence in empire • Eventually emperorship becomes elected by seven most powerful imperial dukes, bishops • Smaller territorial states emerged, weakened centralizing efforts of the emperors • Investiture Contest • Formerly, important church officials were appointed by imperial authorities • Pope Gregory VII ordered an end to the practice • Emperor Henry IV was excommunicated because of his disobedience • France • The Capetians • Hugh Capet, a minor and weak noble, was elected king in 987 • In the next three centuries, Capetian kings gained power and wealth gradually • Spend most of energy asserting their power over regional powerful nobles • The Normans • Descendants of Vikings who carved out a state in Normandy of France • Nominally subject to Carolingian and Capetian rulers, but acted independently • The British Isles • England: Normans to Plantagenets • Duke William of Normandy invaded England • Introduced Norman style of feudalism to England • Warred constantly with France for control of territory • Ireland and Scotland too disunited due to clan warfare – at mercy of England • Italy • Northern Italy nominally part of the Holy Roman Empire • Church influence in Italy • The popes ruled a good-sized territory in central Italy • The church also influenced politics of northern Italy • Italian states • A series of prosperous city-states emerged by the 12th century • Normans conquered southern Italy, brought it to Roman Catholic Christianity • Christian and Muslim states in Iberia • Muslim conquerors ruled most of the peninsula, 8th-11th centuries • Christian kingdoms took the peninsula except Granada by late 13th cent

20. EUROPE, C. EARLY 13TH CENTURY

21. GROWTH OF THE AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY • Expansion of arable land • Population rises • Cleared forests, swamps • Lords encouraged such efforts • Improved farming techniques • Crop rotation methods • Use of fertilizer • Cultivation of beans increased • More domestic animals • Books on economy, agriculture • New tools and technology • Extensive use of watermills and heavy plows • Use of horseshoe and horse collar, increased land under cultivation • 3-plot rotation of planted land • New food supplies • Before 1000, European diet - grains • After 1000, more meat, dairy products, fish, vegetables, legumes • Population growth • From 29 to 79 million between 800 C.E. and 1300 C.E.

22. REVIVAL OF TOWNS AND TRADE • Urbanization • Peasants, serfs, tradesmen flocked to cities and towns • Towns allowed serfs to acquire freedom if they stayed 1 year, 1 day • Local nobles allowed towns charters, rights for direct taxes • Towns ruled by urban elite usually from guilds, wealthy • Textile production • Northern Italian cities and Flanders became centers of wool textiles • Trade in wool products fueled economic development of Europe • Mediterranean trade • Trading City-States • Venice, Genoa were the most prominent but others such as Pisa, Amalfi • Wealth based on sea-power, luxury trade • Italians established colonies in Mediterranean, Black Sea • Conquered, settled cities, built factories and trade centers • Established trading alliances, signed treaties with many including Muslims • The Hanseatic League • Hansa - association of trading cities, controlled trade of N. Europe • German trading city-states made alliance; established factories in North, Baltic Seas • Concluded treaties with many states; admitted key foreign cities to alliance • So powerful could resist kingdoms, made war on opponents • Trade is fish, grains, iron, cloth • Major European rivers, entrepots linked Hansa to the Mediterranean • Improved business techniques • Bankers issued letters of credit to merchants • Commercial partnerships for limiting risks of commercial investment

23. EUROPEAN CITIES

24. MEDIEVAL TRADE ROUTES

25. TRADING CITIES

26. SOCIAL CHANGES • The three estates • "Those who pray" – clergy, spiritual estate • Ruling hierarchy: Popes, bishops, abbots • Common clergy: Monks, priests • "Those who fight" - feudal nobles, military estate • Royalty who ran a state • Land owning lords such as dukes, counts, princes • Lowest nobility with no land were knights • "Those who work" - mostly peasants and serfs • Peasants and Serfs • Those who lived in Towns (Burg = Burghers) • Not an estate in most countries • Grew to become middle class • Guilds • Established standards of quality for manufactured goods • Determined prices and regulated entry of new workers • Ran free cities as urban aristocracy • Independent cities • Expansion of cities did not fit into feudal framework • Urban populations were increasingly able to resist feudal nobles • Chivalry • Code of ethics and behavior for feudal nobles • Church directed chivalry toward Christian faith, piety • Rise of Estates General, Parliaments, and Assemblies • Kings had to govern with the consent of the nobles, clergy • Could not tax without their approval for which demanded rights • Eventually most rulers granted nobles, clergy rights to assemble, to debate • Also granted right to free peasants, citizens of towns who formed the “commons” • Many assemblies limited rights of rulers, became permanent bodies

27. GENDER ROLES IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE • Feminine Roles of the Day • The Virgin Mary was the ideal • Mother to children • Supports husband quietly, diligently • A patriarchal society but strong feminine roles • Public Role • Very limited as it was a “male’s world” • Women could own property in own right • Feudalism did not prohibit women from fighting but often they named a champion • Female rulers were not unknown • Generally seen as regents for son, grandson • If widowed, lost rights if remarried or when male came of age • Frequently seen in Spain, Scandinavia, England, Italy • Laws would not permit women to rule in France, Germany, Eastern Europe • Private Role • ALWAYS differentiate between aristocracy, poor • Aristocratic Women • Women were the womb to breed the heir; marriage politics taken very seriously • Roles public and private limited by convention and wealth to social roles and little else • Poor women • Equally a man’s world but women had to work next to males for family to survive • Most women married due to pregnancy, married early in life, died young • Middle Class (Urban) women • Towns and cities offered fresh opportunities for women • Women worked in a wide range of occupations • Most guilds admitted women, and women also had their own guilds • The Church Women • As nuns women acquired social equality with men by renouncing sexuality • Abbesses, nuns could run monasteries, were educated, had great influence • Women of the Day • Eleanor, Countess Aquitaine, Duchess of Normandy, Queen of England • Most celebrated woman of her day • Inherited richest lands in Europe; married King of England • Supported troubadours, promoted good manners, refinement, arts, and romantic love • Blessed Hildegard von Bingen • Leading mystic, intellectual, advisors to bishops, popes • Revolutionized techniques in music

28. THE CHURCH AND LEARNING • Cathedral schools • Bishops, archbishops in France, Italy organized schools • Cathedral schools concentrated on liberal arts • Some offered instruction in law, medicine, and theology • Universities • Large cathedral schools developed into universities • Most students trained for church, bureaucratic jobs • Most students were from middle classes and not nobility • Student guilds and faculty guilds • Chief degree was theology • The influence of Aristotle • Increased contacts led to rediscovery of Aristotle • Obtained works from Byzantines, Muslims • Scholasticism: St. Thomas Aquinas • Scholasticism • System learning applied to Christianity • Intellectual and rational • St. Thomas Aquinas • Dominican scholar • Famous scholastic theologian • Wrote Summa Theologica • Sought to harmonize • Greek rationality • Aristotelian learning • Christianity

29. THE RELIGION OF THE MASSES • Popular Religion • Sacraments and Devotions • The most popular was the Eucharist • Devotion to saints for help • The Virgin Mary: the most popular saint • Saints' relics were esteemed • Pilgrimage: to Rome, Compostela, Jerusalem • People were superstitious • Devoted to many pagan rituals • Believed in witches • Reform Movements and Popular Heresies • Dominicans and Franciscans • Organized movements of non-cloistered religious • Dominicans worked primarily as teachers • Franciscans were primarily social workers • Worked directly with populace, needy, sick • Championed spiritual over materialistic values • Zealously combated heterodox movements • Popular heresy • Dominicans became the Church’s police or Inquisition • Movements of Waldensians and Cathars (Albigensians)

30. COLONIZATION AND CRUSADES • Atlantic and Baltic Colonization • The Vikings • Scandinavians turned to Atlantic, 9th/10th centuries • Colonized Iceland and Greenland • Leif Ericsson settled in Canada (Vinland) • Established Dynasty of the Rus in Russia (Kiev) • Established states in Normandy, S. Italy, Holy Land • Christianity in Scandinavia • Kings of Denmark, Norway converted, 10th c. • St. Olaf convinced the king, nobles to convert • Colonies in Iceland, Sweden, Finland also converted • Crusading Orders and Baltic Expansion • Germans launched mass settlement of Eastern lands • Allowed nobles to conquer, settle lands in east • Formed military-religious orders to assist • Launched crusades against pagan Baltic and Slavic peoples • Settled German peasants, serfs in lands • The Teutonic Knights were most active in the Baltic region • Baltic region was absorbed into Christian Europe by late 13th century • Settled German settlers in Estonia, Latvia, Prussia • Allied with the Hansa • The Reconquest (for Christianity) of Sicily and Spain • The conquest of Southern Italy, Sicily by Normans, 1040 – 1090 • Seized lands from the Byzantines, Lombards, Muslims to create a powerful, modern state • Became ally, protector of the Popes; bitter enemies of the Byzantines • The reconquista of Spain • The reconquista began in 11th century after collapse of strong Muslim state • By 1150, conquered half peninsula: leading states were Leon-Castile, Aragon, Catalonia, Portugal • By the 13th century, took almost all the peninsula except Granada

31. THE CRUSADES • The Turks • Arrived in Middle East in early 11th century; defeated Abbassids and Byzantines • Seized much of Byzantine holdings in Anatolia, Muslim Holy Land • Pope Urban II • Byzantines asked West for help; Pope called for knights to seize Holy Land, 1095 • Peter the Hermit traveled in Europe and organized a ragtag army • The campaign was a disaster for the crusaders • The first crusade • French, Normans organized a respectable military expedition, 1096 • Jerusalem fell to the crusaders, 1099 • Muslims recaptured Jerusalem, 1187 • Later crusades • By the mid-13th century, launched five major crusades which all failed • 4th crusade (1202-1204) conquered Constantinople, made Schism final • Consequences of the crusades • Facilitated exchange of goods between Muslims, Europe • Demands for silk, cotton textiles, and spices increased; spread sugar, citrus plants • Italian merchants sought opportunities for direct trade in Asian markets • European borrowed heavily from Muslim intellectual knowledge • Reacquired Aristotle, lost Greek classics • Borrowed Muslim science, mathematics, technology, paper skills • Borrowed Muslim architectural techniques • Helped produce a 12th century European intellectual Renaissance

32. MAP OF THE CRUSADES