Sampling

1. Sampling Technical Aspects

2. Sampling • Have discussed different types of sampling • Quota, convenience, judgement and probability samples • Will now focus on probability sampling • Theoretical framework • Various probability sampling concepts • Stratification, clustering, unequal selection probabilities • Systematic sampling; multi-stage sampling

3. Simple Random Samples • Say we decide to take a sample of size n • If all the possible samples have an equal probability of being chosen, this is called a simple random sample (without replacement), or SRS for short • Can also take a simple random sample with replacement (SRSWR), but this requires a slightly more general sampling theory

4. Estimating the Mean from an SRS • Estimate the mean from the sample as • Then the variance of this estimate is

5. Means under SRS (cont’d) • These formulae can be used to produce valid confidence intervals if n is “large enough” • For approximately normally distributed data, n>50 is probably large enough • Percentages are special cases of means • However s2=pq is typically used • Need np>5 and npq>5 for valid CIs

6. Other Sample Designs • SRS are often too costly for practical use • Other sample designs are therefore needed • Stratified sampling • Split population into groups or strata • Sample independently within each stratum • Can use different sampling fractions within each stratum (or even various sample designs)

7. Stratified Sampling (continued) • Calculate weights as • Use these weights when analysing sample data • For estimates of totals, can calculate variances for each stratum and add these together to give overall variance • Means require a weighted average of the variances, where the weights are proportional to the square of the stratum size • If the sampling fractions are similar, this variance is usually smaller than the variance for an SRS of the same size • Due to smaller variance between cases within a stratum

8. Example: Body Mass Index The information in the table below obtained from a sample of n =246 women working in NZ drawn from population with average body shape (as measured by body mass index BMI), N = large Data classified by ethnicity and self-image Self-image: levels UW underweight, OK, OW overweight

9. Example: Body Mass Index… Assume sample is a simple random sample.Estimate proportion of all women who think that they are overweight. Give a standard error for your estimate. Suppose that in the population: 10% Asian, 50% European, 25% Maori, 15% Pacific Islanders. Use this information to get improved estimate.

10. Cluster Sampling • Typically, face-to-face household surveys involve interviewing several people in each area • This is an example of a cluster sample, where the areas are the clusters • This approach is much less costly than an SRS of the same size • However it will also exhibit higher sampling variability, due to correlations between interviews within a cluster • E.g. similar spending patterns due to similar incomes, or a similar range of products being available locally

11. Variances under Cluster Sampling • Variances are inflated under cluster sampling by a factor depending on • Cluster size (denoted m) • Intra-cluster correlation (denoted ρ) as follows: • Here the intra-cluster correlation coefficient ρis defined as the Pearson correlation coefficient between all pairs of distinct units in the sample

12. Difference Between Cluster and Stratified Sampling Population of L strata, stratum l contains nl units Population of C clusters Take simple random sample in every stratum Take srs of clusters, sample every unit in chosen clusters

13. Systematic Sampling • Another commonly used sampling technique is systematic sampling • The population is listed in a particular order, then every kth unit is selected • Start at a random point between 1 and k • Here k is chosen so that N ≈ kn • Systematic sampling is a special case of cluster sampling, with only one cluster selected • This makes it hard to estimate sampling variances • Need prior knowledge or assumptions about response patterns

14. More on Systematic Sampling • Performance depends strongly on response patterns • Linear trend yields an implicit stratification, and works well • However cyclic variation of period k (or some multiple of k) can result in huge variability • Systematic sampling generalises easily to sampling with probability proportional to size • However large units may need to be placed in a certainty stratum, or selected more than once

15. Multi-stage Sample Designs • Many surveys use complex sample designs that combine several of the above elements in a multi-stage sampling framework • For example, face-to-face in-home surveys of people often employ three stages • Systematic pps sampling of areas • Cluster samples of households within areas • Random selection of one person from each household (unequal sampling probabilities)

16. Complex Sample Designs • Multi-stage designs may require complex estimation processes, especially for variance estimation • Specialised software is often needed • Different items in a questionnaire may refer to different units, from different sampling stages • E.g. Households and people • E.g. Customers and brands purchased • These will usually require different statistical treatment • E.g. different sets of weights for households and people

17. After you’ve collected the data

18. Data Collection • Contact selected respondents • Unless data can be obtained ethically through observation or record linkage/data matching • Obtain completed questionnaires • Structured interview or self-completion • Statistics involved here in design decisions • E.g. quotas, scheduling interview times • Also quality control and improvement role

19. Data Capture and Cleaning • Data entry • From paper questionnaires or other records • Typically a (fixed) proportion are re-entered for quality control (QC) purposes – improvement possible here • Coding • Assigning labels (or codes) based on verbal descriptions • Data editing • Eliminate inconsistent data • Identify and treat outliers • Confirm data with respondent, or alter or even delete data

20. Weighting and Imputation • Weighting • Attaches a weight to each observation • Used to calculate weighted means, percentages • Often required to reflect sample design • Un-weighted results would be biased • Also helps compensate for unit non-response • Unit non-response is when data is not obtained for some units, although they were selected as part of our sample • Weights are adjusted to align survey results with known population figures • Covered in more detail later

21. Imputation • Helps deal with item missing data • When certain items in the questionnaire are not available for all respondents, this is known as item missing data • Fills in gaps with sensible values • Allows standard methods for analysis of complete data to be used • More detail given later

22. Data Analysis and Tables • Many analysis techniques are available • Cross-tabulation is ubiquitous in market research • Tabulating one categorical variable against another, e.g. intended party vote by age group • Need to calculate random sampling error • Also known as variance estimation • Influenced by sample design and weighting • More on this later

23. Reporting and Decision-Making • Reporting results • Important that these are communicated clearly • Statistical input often vital • Should address survey objectives • Decision-making and action • Influenced by survey results (hopefully!) • Actions may include further research

24. Statistics in Survey Research • In summary: • Statistics is generally most useful in the design and analysis stages of surveys • Especially sampling, weighting, and data analysis • Also relevant at other stages • Quality control and quality improvement for survey operations • Effect of survey procedures on survey results • Interpretation of survey results

25. Weighting • Usually survey weights are calculated for each responding unit • Aim for unbiased weighted survey results • Or at least more accurate than without weights • Survey weights can adjust for • Sample design • Unit non-response

26. First Year Statistics Web Survey – Instructions: Please answer all questions Completion and submission of this survey by Friday, 12 March puts you into the draw for $50 worth of book vouchers (donated by UBS, the University Book Store) Your ID is needed to enter you into the draw and it will not be stored with your responses. I am a student at the University of Auckland. I agree to take part in this data collection project. I am over the age of 16 years. I understand that once I submit my survey, I will not be able to withdraw it. The information collected from this survey will be used only for data analysis examples and exercises in this course Response rate ~50% STATS20x Web Survey - Instructions Please answer all questions: Completion and submission of this survey by 4pm Friday 12th March will gain you credit for Assignment 1 Your ID is needed so you can be awarded the marks for Assignment 1 Your ID will not be stored with your responses The information collected from this survey will be used only for data analysis for examples and exercises in this course Response rate ~90% (worth 1% max of total grade) Non-response – importance of incentives

27. Weighting for Sample Design • Need to adjust for varying probabilities of selection • No need if selection probabilities are equal • Varying selection probabilities arise from • Stratification • Selecting one person per household • Double sampling, e.g. for booster samples • May need to truncate weights if highly variable • Introduces some bias, but reduces variance markedly

28. Weighting for Unit Non-Response • Response rates in NZ market research surveys usually between 20% and 60% • Lower for telephone surveys, higher for face-to-face surveys • Gradually decreasing • Non-response can cause bias, if non-respondents would give different answers from respondents, on average • For linear statistics, can express non-response bias as the product of this difference times the non-response rate

29. Post-Stratification • Post-stratification is probably the most common method of adjusting for non-response • The sample is divided into a set of post-strata • This is similar to setting up strata for a stratified sample, but is done after data collection is complete, and so can use data collected during the survey • Note: these weights depend on the random sample and so are random themselves • Sample skews relative to known population figures are then corrected, by adjusting the weights to align survey results with the population figures for each post-stratum • This can reduce sampling variability as well as non-response bias

30. Post-Stratification Example * Multiply all these by 700/10200

31. Rim Weighting • Also known as incomplete post-stratification and raking ratio estimation • Allows control for more than one set of post-strata • Iterative method • Apply post-stratification to each set of post-strata in turn, until all have been aligned once • Repeat last step until all are within allowable tolerances • Both post-stratification and rim weighting can be applied to data with existing weights, such as inverse probability weights

32. Weighting and Sampling Error • Moderate post-stratification can improve the reliability of survey results (i.e. decrease sampling error) • However using post-strata with small sample sizes can lead to extreme weights and excessively variable survey results • A variety of recommended minimum post-stratum sizes can be found in the literature, ranging from 5 to 30. Caution probably suggests aiming for the upper end of this range (as a minimum). • Similar problems can also affect rim weighting, even if all the explicit post-strata are large • May be due to implied constraints affecting a small number of respondents

33. Data checking and Imputation

34. Data Checking & Editing • Consistency checks • Ideally would do this during data collection • Limited real-time checks possible with self-completion questionnaires or pen and paper interviewing (PAPI) • Computer assisted interviewing (CAI) allows broader checks • Checking for outliers • Range checks – based on subject matter expertise • Check % of overall total coming from each case • Multivariate statistics – e.g. MV t-statistics • Cluster analysis – any tiny clusters

35. Editing Data • Recontact (if necessary) and ask again • Replace with “unknown” or “missing” code • Replace with sensible values (i.e. impute) • Can be done manually • Sometimes difficult to replicate or interpret results • Several (semi-)automatic methods available • Will discuss these soon • Need to document what was done

36. Missing Data • Distinguish unit and item non-response • Unit non-response – no data for some respondents • Item non-response – have some data, but not for all items • Typical causes • Respondent unwilling to provide data – e.g. income • Respondent unable to provide data – e.g. can’t recall • Could not contact desired respondent • Data collection or processing errors • Inconsistent or unbelievable data found through checks

37. Non-Response Models - Notation • First, a little notation • Y is the variable of interest • X is other observed data • R is response indicator variable • R=1 if Y observed • R=0 if Y is missing • We are interested in P(R=0 | X,Y) • Non-response probability given X and Y

38. Non-Response Models • Data missing completely at random (MCAR) • P(R=0 | X,Y) = p • Non-response probability does not depend on the value of Y or other observed data X • Data missing at random (MAR) • P(R=0 | X,Y) = p(X), where p(X) is some function of X • Non-response probability depends only other observed data X, not on the value of Y • Both MCAR and MAR are what is known as ignorable non-response models • Non-ignorable non-response is when P(R=0 | X,Y) = p(X,Y) • Non-response probability depends on Y, not just on X

39. Methods for Missing Data • Unit non-response – re-weight data • Rest of this section focuses on item non-response • Listwise deletion of missing data • Delete any observation with a missing value for any of the variables being analysed • Assumes omitted cases are similar to remaining cases – true for MCAR data, but often this assumption doesn’t hold • E.g. Omitting undecided voters implicitly assumes that they will split their votes in the same proportions as voters who have decided • Can be inefficient even if MCAR assumption holds • E.g. multiple regression with 15 predictors, each missing 5-10% • Over 50% of cases omitted from analysis

40. Methods for Missing Data • Pairwise deletion • Works for analyses that break down into sub-analyses that only use two variables at once • E.g. correlation matrix, factor analysis, CHAID or CART • For each sub-analysis, only remove those cases with missing data for one of the two items used • Can also be severely biased, and even lead to self-contradictory results • Some analyses can handle missing data directly • E.g. latent class models • Can report missing values as an extra row or column in tables – e.g. “Don’t Know” or “Refused”

41. Imputation Methods • Impute to fill in missing data, then analyse resulting complete data in the usual way • Ideal: impute once, do many analyses • Imputation requires some statistical expertise • Many imputation methods have been developed • Each method gives unbiased results (for certain analyses), assuming some non-response model holds • Even when main results are unbiased, special methods are needed to get unbiased variance estimates (and confidence intervals etc.)

42. Mean Imputation • Mean imputation • Impute mean value for all missing values • Gives sensible overall mean (assuming data MCAR), but distorts distribution • Impute mean + simulated error • Impute mean + random residual • Impute mean within imputation classes • Only assumes data MAR (where X=imputation class) when estimating means • Can generalise all the above methods to incorporate ANOVA or regression models

43. Hot-deck Imputation • Random hot-deck imputation • Divide data into imputation classes • Replace each missing value with the data from a randomly chosen donor in the same class • Assumes MAR (where X=imputation class) • Preserves distribution within classes • However only works well for moderately large imputation classes (preferably 30+, depends on nature of Y distribution given X) • Also multivariate (X,Y) relationships are hard to handle

44. Hot-deck Imputation • Nearest neighbour hot-deck imputation • Choose from most similar donors available, based on a multivariate distance function • Can choose best match, or randomly from k best • Can limit donor usage by including penalty for heavy usage into distance function • Allows for multivariate (X,Y) relationships • Not limited to a specific statistical model • Can be less efficient than methods that do assume a specific model, but is more robust

45. Multiple Imputation • Aims to allow valid inference when certain imputation methods are used (Rubin 1987) • Method • Impute multiple values using same imputation procedure • Analyse each resulting dataset, recording results including variance estimates • Combine the results to give overall variance estimate, and use this for inference

46. Multiple Imputation • Whether this works depends on the data, the analysis being carried out and the imputation method used • When it works, the imputation method is called “proper” (for that analysis procedure and dataset) • However it is difficult to know whether it works for a particular analysis • Current advice is to use a wide selection of X variables when imputing, including all possible analysis variables and design factors • Other methods have been developed for correct imputation inference – more details later

47. Variance estimation

48. Variance Estimation • Sampling variation depends on the estimator, sample design and sample size • Many market researchers believe it depends only on sample size – e.g. net percentages • Standard variance formulae available for most analysis methods • Typically assume SRS or SRSWR • However these formulae do not work for the sample designs used in most MR surveys

49. Classical Approaches • Variance formulae have also been developed for some estimators under a wide range of sample designs • See books by authors such as Cochran and Kish • 1950’s to 1970’s • Design effect • Ratio of actual variance to variance assuming SRS of same size • Typically varies from one item to the next • Usually under 2 for household surveys, but sometimes more • Can be much higher for other surveys – e.g. 25 for some items in NZ Adverse Events Study

50. General Methodsfor Variance Estimation • Variance formulae may already be available • If not, there are several general methods for variance estimation for complex surveys • Linearisation • Random groups • Resampling methods • Balanced repeated replication (BRR) • Jackknife