16. Automation

1. 16. Automation • WHY AUTOMATE • impossible or hazardous 2. difficult or unpleasant • extend human capability 4. technically possible • STAGES AND LEVELS OF AUTOMATION • information acquisition, selection, and filtering – selectiveattention --automatic highlighting • information integration – perception and working memory -- predictor displays • action selection and choice – traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS) • control and action execution – autopilots, cruise control, automatic car windows • 8 levelsof automation to stages 3 and 4 (Sheridan, 2002) • PROBLEMS IN AUTOMATION • Automation Reliability • reliable – it does what the human operator expects it to do • not the reliability per se but the perceived reliability • why automation may be perceived as unreliable • it may be unreliable • there may be certain situations in which the automation is not designed to operate or may not perform well • the human operator may incorrectly set up the automation – dumb and dutiful • due to poor mental model, it appears to be acting erroneously to the operator

2. Trust: Calibration and Mistrust • trust should be well calibrated – trust should be in direct proportion to its reliability (mistrust) • Human trust in automation is not entirely well calibrated (distrust/overtust) • distrust is a type of mistrust where the person fails to trust the automation as much as is appropriate – are not necessarily severe, but may lead to inefficiency • Overtrust and Complacency • overtrust occurs when people trust the automation more than is warranted – severe negative consequences if the automation is less than fully reliable • The cause of complacency – human tendency to let experience guide our expectancies – perceived perfect reliability  cease monitoring or far less frequently • Automation has three distinct implications for human intervention • detection: the complacent operator will likely be slower to detect a real failure; the more reliable, the rarer the signal events, and the poorer their detection • situation awareness – better aware with active participation (generation effect) – out of the loop, poor feedback of the automated process • skill loss (deskilling) – the gradual loss of skills • less self-confident in performance  more likely to continue to use automation • degrade the operator’s ability to intervene approximately (fig 16.1) • Workload and Situation Awareness • as automation level moves up the scale, both workload and SA tend to go down • clumsy automation – automation makes easy tasks easier and hard tasks harder • Training and Certification

3. Loss of Human Cooperation • Job Satisfaction • FUNCTION ALLOCATION BETWEEN THE PERSON AND AUTOMATION • Fitts’s List (Table 16.2) • HUMAN-CENTERED AUTOMATION • keeping the human informed • keeping the human trained • keeping the operator in the loop • selecting appropriate stages and levels when automation is imperfect (fig16.2) • making the automation flexible and adaptive • maintaining a positive management philosophy • SUPERVISORY CONTROL AND AUTOMATION-BASED COMPLEX SYSTEM • automation is not optional, but necessity -- production of continuous quantities (chemical process control), production of discrete quantities (manufacturing control), robotics control • how to support the supervisor in times of failures and fault management  knowledge-based behavior, predictor displays, ecological interface • robotics control in manufacturing and in navigating UAV • hortatory control – the systems being controlled retains a high degree of autonomy

4. 17. Transportation Human Factors • AUTOMOTIVE HUMAN FACTORS • Task Analysis of the Vehicle Roadway System Strategic, Tactical, and Control Aspects of Driving • strategic tasks – deciding where to go, when to go and how to get there • tactical tasks – choice of maneuvers and immediate goals in getting to a destination such as speed selection, the decision to pass another vehicle, and the choice of lanes • control tasks – moment-to-moment operation of the vehicle such as maintaining a desired speed, keeping the desired distance from the car ahead, keeping the car in the lane Control Task • two-dimensional tracking task of vehicle control • the lateral task of maintaining lane position – 2nd-order control task with preview and a predictor  the best measure is the time to lane crossing (TLC) • longitudinal task as a first-order tracking task of speed keeping • three channels of visual information to be tracked along the two axes • lateral tracking by the roadway curvature • longitudinal tracking by the flow of motion along the roadway and the location or distance of hazards and traffic control devices

5. Multitask Demands • primary control task -- lane keeping and roadway hazard monitoring dependent upon primary vision attention lobe (PVAL) of information (fig 17.1 and 17.2) • inattention, competing visual tasks • secondary motor activity – conflict with monitoring and processing and visual information in the PVAL Cabin Environment • create the simplest, most user-friendly design of the internal displays and controls • Visibility Anthropometry • anthropometric factors of seating – reachability of different controls • design for the mean is not appropriate -- controls accessible and interpretable Illumination • adequate highway lightning, adequate reflectors Signage • minimize visual clutter from unnecessary signs • locate signs consistently • identify sign classes distinctly – color, shape • allow signs to be read efficiently

6. Resource Competition • serious distraction of in-cab viewing – thenumber and duration of glances – feel safe less than 0.8 sec/glance, 3 sec between glances • auditory display, speech recognition, HUD • Hazards and Collisions Control Loss • slick or icy road conditions, narrow lanes and momentarily lapses in attention, rapid over-correction (minor lane departure) – roadway departure because of fatigue • directly related to the bandwidth of correction – vehicle speed Hazard Response • poor visibility and inattention can cause a failure to detect hazards • the time to react to unexpected objects (the perception-reaction time or brake reaction time) – 1 to 2 sec, mean of 1.5 sec Speeding • quadruple threat to driver safety – (1) increases the likelihood of control loss; (2) decreases the probability of detecting hazard in time; (3) increases the distance traveled before a successful avoidance maneuver; (4) increases the damage at impact (fig 17.3) • why do people speed? • perceptual biases (underestimating true speed) – size biased distance judgments; bias to overspeed (quieter engines, higher seating position above the ground, less visible ground texture), adaptation • cognitive biases (overestimating the ability to stop in time)

7. Risky Behavior • cognitive biases to overspeeding – overconfidence (underestimation of risk), expectancy (no experience of a collision – little effect on the behavior of survivors) • The Impaired Driver Fatigue • over 50% of the accidents leading to the death of a truck driver and over 10% of all fatal car accidents Alcohol • the most effective interventions may be social norming Age Impairment Interactions • Driving Safety Improvements Driver Characteristics: Training and Selection • higher accident rates were related with limited skills (for the very young driver) and limited information processing abilities (for the elderly) • graduated licensing for younger drivers, more frequent driving test • the standard visual acuity test – very little relevance for driving  dynamic visual acuity Driver Characteristics: Driver Adaptation and Risk Calibration • risk homeostasis model – partially consistent  motive for driving faster and force of habit • any safety intervention must consider the tendency for people to adapt to the new situation

8. Driver Characteristics: Regulatory Compliance • effective enforcement of speed limits can make a difference – automatic speed management system, automated systems for issuing tickets Driver and Vehicle Characteristics: Fitness to Drive • driver monitoring system -- monitoring the vehicle (e.g., steering behavior) and the driver (e.g., blinking rate, EEG) Vehicle Characteristics: Sensing and Warnings • high mounted brake lights, trilight system Roadway Characteristics: Expectancy • positive guidance, light cycle • expectancy and standardization on sign location and interaction design • reduce the consequence of an accident Driver and Vehicle Characteristics: Use of Protective Devices • AUTOMATIVE AUTOMATION • Intelligent Transportation System (ITS) – collision warning systems, automated navigation systems, driver monitors – GPS system, traffic sensing devices, digital map database, wireless connection • user trust and complacency • attention may be drawn more into the vehicle • introduce a new type of productivity and safety tradeoff in driving

9. PUBLIC GROUND TRANSPORTATION • Maritime Human Factors • fatigue and crew reductions • extremely sluggish in their handling qualities, benefiting from predictive displays • Aviation Human Factors • The Tasks • primary multiaxis tracking task -- aviating • maintaining situation awareness, navigating to three-dimensional points, following procedures, communicating with controllers and other pilots, monitoring system status • competition -- visual, perceptual, cognitive, and response-related resources Tracking and Flight Control • 6 degrees of freedom of motion • rotational axes -- pitch, roll (or bank), and yaw • translational axes – lateral, vertical, and longitudinal • two primary goals • aviating -- keeping the plane from stalling by maintaining adequate air flow over the wings, which produces lift  control of the airspeed and attitude (pitch and roll) • navigate the aircraft to points in the 3-D airspace (4-D navigation with time) • yoke controls the elevators and ailerons – pitch and bank (first-order dynamics) • throttle controls airspeed • rudder pedals help coordinate turning and heading changes

10. three facets make the multielements tracking task much more difficult • displays do not show a good, integrated, pictorial representation of the aircraft • the dynamics of several aspects of flight control are higher order • the axes often have cross-couplings Maintaining Situation Awareness • achieving SA through display design -- HUD Following Procedures • to assist the pilot’s prospective memory – knowledge in the world in the checklist • two kinds of errors in following checklists • top-down processing (coupled with time pressure) may lead to see the item in its appropriate state, even if it is not • distractions can lead the pilot to skip a step in the checklist • redundant participation, automation • The Social Context • breakdowns in pilot team performance  junior vs. senior  CRM (cockpit/crew resource management) • Supporting the Pilot • maintenance technicians and their inspection and trouble shooting skills • aircraft automation – human-centered automation • air traffic control

11. 18. Selection and Training • PERSONNEL SELECTION • predicting future job performance; categorize accepted applicants into the job type • interviews, work histories, background checks, tests, references, work samples • signal detection theory  hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection • Basics of Selection • job analysis – selection, training, performance appraisal, setting salary levels  tasks, environments, related knowledge, skills, & abilities • already have the task-specific knowledge and skills required or show evidence of basic knowledge and abilities • criterion-related validity – Fig. 18.1 • Selection Tests and Procedures Measures of Cognitive Ability • standardized tests  more valid than any others • complex jobs (general intelligence – working memory capacity); high complexity (verbal and numerical ability); low complexity (motor coordination and manual dexterity) Measures of Physical Ability and Psychomotor Skills • physical strength, physical endurance, manual dexterity, and/or psychomotor skills Personality Assessment • clinical measures – mental illness or behavioral disorders – not appropriate • personality dimensions – five basic personality factors/clusters

12. Work Samples and Job Knowledge • work sampling – expensive to assess • video assessment – see a short scenario and respond in the situation • job knowledge test – high transferable knowledge to the job, motivation factor Structured Interviews • questions based on and related to knowledge and skills identified in the job analysis • describe previous work behavior  critical behavior interview – discuss recent occasions when they felt they were performing at their best • PERFORMANCE SUPPORT AND JOB AIDS • performance-support approach  as needed basis, shifting a ‘learn-and-apply’ to ‘learning-while-applying’ cycle • performance support – the process of providing a set of information and learning activities in a context-specific fashion during task performance  efficient because of less taxing on memory – Fig. 18.2 Job Aids and Instructions • job aids - daily to-do list, recipe, note cards, computer templates, instructions for assembling a product, procedural lists • traditional instruction manual  Wright’s quidelines -- caution against using prose, effective use of pictures (redundancy gain), proximity-compatibility principle • voice coupled with pictures when presenting instructions EmbeddedComputer Support • on-line help system – adaptive automation  interrupting the ongoing task • when to use performance support, training, or both – table 18.1

13. TRAINING • Learning and Expertise • three different stages in the development of expertise (fig. 18.4, 18.5) • knowledge about a job or a task characterized by declarative knowledge – not well organized, fragile • with familiarity and practice, procedural knowledge by rules and if-then statements • automaticity • Methods for Enhancing Training • the best training in the shortest time, to the longest retention, the least expensive Practice and Overlearning • overlearning beyond error-free performance • improving in the speed of performance involving cognitive or motor aspects  automaticity  important in skills with high multitasking requirements • decrease the rate of forgetting and increase the ease of a task Encouraging Deep, Active, and Meaningful Processing • deep processing -- chunking in the formation of meaningful associations with material already in WM to learn the new material • generation effect • active problem solving and group participation • better retained when understanding why rather than what – embedded in the context of the procedural task to be learned

14. Offering Feedback • corrective feedback, motivational feedback • immediately after the skill is performed Consider Individual Differences • redundancy of graphics and words is most helpful Pay Attention to Attention • learning is information processing, and information processing is generally resources limited • cognitive load theory Training in Parts • part-task training is not always superior to whole-task training  how the task is broken down • segmentation – several components occurring in sequence without overlapping • fractionation – component tasks performed simultaneously or concurrently Simplifying, Guiding and Adaptive Training • simplification – reducing load and errors of performance • guiding – “training wheels” approach – disabling or freezing keys • simplified version of a skill will not transfer to the complex version • learners can become overly dependent on the guidance or scaffolding Media Matters? • modest benefits of computer-based instruction – these gains are not large  the particular aspect of the computer media not the computer itself

15. Transfer of Training and Simulation • how well the learning in one environment enhance performance in a new environment • positive/negative transfer • %transfer = (control time – transfer time)/(control time)*100 = savings/(control time)*100 • transfer effectiveness ratio = savings/(training time) • realism or fidelity of the simulator – more realism does not necessarily produce more positive transfer • On the Job Training and Embedded training • much less effective than other training methods – very effective if using Instructional System Design with strong guidance to the trainer • embedded training is most appropriate for jobs that rely at least partially on computers • TRAINING PROGRAM DESIGN • A Training Program Design Model • ISD (Instructional System Design) models – similar to human factors design models • front-end analysis phase  design and development phase  implementation  final system evaluation phase • developing job aids, instructional manuals, performance-support systems in addition to more traditional training programs

16. Phase 1: Front-End Analysis • organizational analysis • information-collection activity to identify any factors regarding the need for and success for a training program – future company change such as job redesign or acquisition or new technology, management attitude toward job duties • document analysis, interviews, questionnaires, job tests, observation • task analysis • identify the knowledge, skills, and behavior for successful task performance • trainee analysis identifies: • prerequisite knowledge and skills to begin the training program • demographics such as age, physical capabilities, primary language, and background • attitudes toward training methods • training needs analysis -- to determine the most appropriate performance improvement approach among task redesign, performance support, develop a training program Phase 2: Design and Development • design concepts (cost/benefit analysis)  project plan  prototype for formative evaluation and usability testing  full-scale development  final usability test Phase 3: Program Evaluation • what criteria to measure, when to measure the criteria, who (which trainee) to use in measuring the criteria, what context to use • pretest-posttest experimental design, control group design

17. 19. Social Factors • GROUPS AND TEAMS • trend in organizational design • flattening structures, decentralized decision making, use of groups and teams • Characteristics of Groups and Teams • organize every function into ten- to thirty-person, largely self-managing teams • team characteristics • the key to group performance – communication • crew – a group of persons or team that manages some of technology usually in transportation • Group Performance • better at tasks than the average but not better than the best • work productivity – less than the sum of the individuals • Team Performance • selection of an appropriate combination of members • four categories • problems interfering with team performance • taskwork skills • teamwork skills – cooperation, coordination, communication, adaptibility, giving/accepting suggestions or criticism, showing team spirit

18. factors to team performance • no common mental model • no time and cognitive resources to communicate plans and strategies • no cognitive resources available to ask others for information • Team Training • acquisition of team work skills • development and use of shared mental models • strategies for effective communication, adaptation to stress, maintenance of situational awareness, group decision making, coordinated task performance • job cross-training • Team Instructional Prescriptions (TIP) • COMPUTER-SUPPORTED COOPERATIVE WORK • Decision Making Using Groupware • group communication support system – teleconferencing, e-mail • group decision support system • Effects of Decision Support Systems • increase group members’ depth of analysis, group communication and efforts to achieve clarification, member participation, the consensus building of group • decrease the domination by a few people

19. Effects of Communication Support System • increase the level of participation and effort expended by group members • increase the depth of analysis • decrease domination of the group by a few members • increase decision times • decrease overall cooperation and consensus building • Computer-Supported Team Performance • group-view displays • provide a status overview • direct personnel to additional information • support collaboration among crew members • support coordination of crew activities • Difficulties in Remote Collaboration • increased difficulty in collaboration – knowing who is doing what • increased difficulty in communication • increased difficulty in maintaining situation awareness because of a decrease in communication

20. MACROERGONOMICS AND INDUSTRIAL INTERVENTION • traditional ergonomics intervention in industry – micoergonomics • macroergonomics • top-down sociotechnical systems approach to the design of organizations, work systems, jobs, and related human-machine, user-system, and human-environment interfaces • participatory ergonomics • employees know a great deal about their job and job environment • employee and management ownership enhances program implementation • end-user participation causes flexible problem solving • ergonomic interventions -- organizational barriers • promoting employee self-protective behavior • use of individual or group incentives • use of disciplinary actions • fear messages • behavior modeling of others • employee surveys