Critical Reasoning: Vagueness, Ambiguity & Rhetoric

1. Philosophy 1100 Title: Critical Reasoning Instructor: Paul Dickey E-mail Address: pdickey2@mccneb.edu Website:http://mockingbird.creighton.edu/NCW/dickey.htm Today: Return Syllabus Quiz Editorial Essay Workshop Finish Chapter 3 Your Presentations on Rhetoric & Chap 5 Discussion Next class (7/7/14): Re-submit Your Editorial Essay Midterm Exam (Chapters 1-3 & 5) 1

2. Chapter Three: Vagueness & Ambiguity 2

3. Vagueness • A vague statement is one whose meaning is imprecise or lacks appropriate or relevant detail. “Your instructor wants everyone to be successful in this class.” “Your instructor is bald.” • Vagueness is often evident when there are borderline cases. Problem is not so much what the concept is but what is the scope of the concept. (e.g. baldness) • Some assertions may be so vague that they are essentially meaningless (e.g. “This country is morally bankrupt,” but most concepts though vague can still be useful. 3

4. Ambiguity • A statement which can have multiple interpretations or meanings is ambiguous. • Examples: “Lindsay Lohan is not pleased with our textbook.” “The average student at Metro is under 35.” “Jessica rents her house.” “Alice cashed the check.” “The boys chased the girls. They were giggling.” 4

5. Ambiguity • Please note that while with the case of vagueness, we resolved it by adding information that clarified meaning, with the case of ambiguity what we are interested in is to eliminate the suggestion of the potential alternate meaning that we do not desire. • “The Raider tackle threw a block at the Giants linebacker.” We want to eliminate the possibility that one could think that one is “throwing a block (of wood?)” Thus, we can say “ The Raider tackle blocked the Giant’s linebacker.” 5

6. Ambiguity • Let’s discuss three kinds of ambiguity. 1. Semantic ambiguity is where there is an ambiguous word or phrase, e.g. “average” price. -- When Barry Goldwater ran for president, his slogan was, "In your heart, you know he's right." In what way is this ambiguous? 2. Syntactic ambiguity is where there is ambiguity because of grammar or sentence structure, e.g. --“Players with beginners’ skills only may use Court #1.” 3. Grouping ambiguity is ambiguous in that the claim could be about an individual in the group or the group entirely, -- Baseball players make more money that computer programmers.” (fallacy of division) 6

7. Defining Your Terms • Defining terms helps one avoid vagueness and ambiguity. • Sometimes you need to use a stipulating definition if perhaps you are using a word in an argument in a different way than it is usually understood or it is a word in which there is itself some controversy. • It is frequently quite reasonable in a logical argument to accept a stipulating definition that you would not yourself have chosen, but does not pre-judge the issue and allows the discussion to precede without distractions. Video 7

8. Defining Your Terms • Most definitions are one of three kinds: • Definition by example. • Definition by synonym. • Analytical definition. • Any of these might be appropriate. • Be careful of “rhetorical” definitions that use emotionally tinged words to pre-judge an issue. • Do not allow someone in an argument to use a “rhetorical definition” as a stipulative definition. If you do, the argument will likely be pointless and subjective. 8

9. Chapter Five: Persuasion Through Rhetoric

10. Chapter Five: Persuasion Through Rhetoric Presenters: Zach: Euphemisms and Dysphemisms Jaime: Rhetorical Analogies, Definitions, and Explanations Tracy: Stereotypes & Image Rhetoric Jackie: Innuendos Jonathan: Loaded Questions & Rhetorical Questions Anthony: Weaseling & Minimizing Amber: Ridicule / Sarcasm & Hyperbole Emmanuel: Proof Surrogates In your presentation, you must define your rhetoric type, give examples, and distinguish it from other types of rhetoric that are similar. I encourage you to use powerpoint slides in your presentation if possible, but it is not necessary.

11. Rhetoric tries to persuade through use of the emotional power of language and is an art in itself. • Though it can be psychologically influential, rhetoric has no logical strength. • Rhetoric does not make your argument any better, even if it convinces everyone. • Can you recognize rhetoric?

12. Euphemisms and Dysphemisms • A euphemism attempts to mute the disagreeable aspects of something. • If I say a car is “pre-owned,” does that sound better and a person would be more likely to buy it than if I said the car was “used?” There is no logical difference. it is the same car. • Would you be more willing to support a “revenue enhancement” or a “tax increase”?

13. Euphemisms and Dysphemisms • Fox news put out an internal memo to its staff to refer to U.S. servicemen in Iraq as “sharpshooters” not “snipers.” • Often, we try to make something “politically correct” by using euphemisms. • I would suggest perhaps a better strategy might be to identify clearly and logically analyze biases and thus we would likely discard them.

14. Oppositely, a dysphemism attempts to produce a negative association through rhetoric. • How do you feel about “freedom fighters?” How do you feel about terrorists? Often, the difference is only based upon which side you are on. • Please note that it is NOT a dysphemism to state an objective report that just sounds horrible, e.g. “Lizzy killed her father with an ax.”

15. Analogies • An analogy is a form of reasoning in which one thing is inferred to be similar to another thing in a certain respect, on the basis of the known similarity between the things in other respects. • An argument from analogy involves the drawing of a conclusion about one object or event because the same can obviously be said about a similar object or event. • An argument from analogy can be a good inductive argument that supports its conclusion. • The strength of any argument from analogy largely depends on the strength and relevance of the employed analogy.

16. Rhetorical Deceptions & Dirty Tricks • But a rhetorical analogy attempts to persuade by use of a comparison (often clever and humorous) without giving us an argument. Hilary’s eyes are bulgy like a Chihuahua. Dick Cheney has steel in his backbone. Social Security is a Ponzi scheme. Video

17. Definitions • An honest definition attempts to clarify meaning. A rhetorical definition uses emotionally tinged words to elicit an attitude that is vague (often intentionally) and pre-judges the issue. Bill Maher’s defined a conservative as “one who thinks all problems can be solved either by more guns or more Jesus.” Abortion is the murder of innocent, unborn children.

18. Rhetorical Explanations • A rhetoric explanation is similarly deceptive and attempts to trash a person or idea under a mask or pretense of giving an explanation. • The War in Vietnam was lost because the American people lost their nerve.” • Students who drop my classes do so because they are idiots. • Liberals who criticize the U.S. Army’s actions in Iraq do so only because they are disloyal to their country.

19. Stereotypes • A stereotype is used when a speaker groups multiple individuals together with a name or description, suggesting that all members of the group are the same in some basic way. • e.g. women are emotional, men are insensitive, gays are effeminate, lesbians hate men, Black men are good at sports. • Stereotypes are not supported by adequate evidence and ignore the psychological principle of individual differences.

20. Stereotypes • People who do not think critically often accept stereotypes because of limited experience. • Tiger Woods and Michael Jordan are good at sports. Thus,….

21. Stereotypes typically originate and become popular because of a cultural agenda (e.g. economic privileges) and in a environment of ignorance. Native American tribes of the Great Plains were generally considered noble people by most white Americans until it became economical advantageous to confiscate their lands. Most individuals of the early 20th century who harbored biases against Native Americans and African-Americans knew very few personally or knew them only in specifically defined roles.

22. Stereotypes are often manipulated as propaganda to incite a nation to support a war or actions during time of an emergency crisis. • Hitler’s use in WWII of ethnic propaganda not only was against Jews, but also Blacks, gypsies, but certain other religious groups. • In the United States, we re-located Japanese families on the West Coast. • Some people believe today that the tea-party protests against the health care bill are manipulations for racist agendas (based on stereotypes). But careful, do you have GOOD PREMISES to believe either that they are or they are not?

23. Innuendo • An innuendo is a deceptive and veiled suggestion or a slanting device applying negatively to an opponent’s character or reputation or to insert a claim though which a direct statement of the claim is avoided (perhaps because there is no evidence). • e.g. “Ladies and gentlemen, I am proof that there is at least one candidate in this race who does not have a drinking problem.” • Please note that in an innuendo the statement given will typically be absolutely true.

24. Innuendo • The innuendo is based on the expectation that the reader will “read into” the statement something more than what is actually said, possibly thus making unwarranted assumptions about why the speaker may have said it. In this case, the speaker wants the listener to believe without giving evidence that there is some reason to believe that one or more of his opponents has a drinking problem.

25. Innuendo • Did President Bush in his 2003 State of the Union address claim that Saddam Hussein was responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attack? • Or did he only “say” that Saddam in general sponsored terrorists? http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rgwqCdv3YQo&feature=related

26. The Loaded Question • A loaded question is a question that suggests strongly an unwarranted and unjustified assumption. • e.g. Do you still hang around with petty criminals? Have you stopped beating your wife? Why have you not renounced your earlier crimes? When are you going to stop lying to us? • This technique is often used quite intentionally in police interrogations to get a suspect to confess to acts that the police have no evidence for.

27. Weaseling • Weaseling protects you from criticism by watering down your claim. • e.g. What if I would have previously said, “Probably most individuals of the early 20th century who harbored biases against Native Americans and African-Americans knew very few personally?” • If so, would have my statement been a good premise? No, not much. If you questioned it, I have a “way out.” Thus, it seems to lack much meaning.

28. Weaseling • Weaseling is a method of hedging a bet. You can sometimes spot weaseling by an inappropriate and frequent use of qualifiers, such as “perhaps,” “possibly,” maybe,” etc. • Be careful. qualifiers also are used often to carefully say what can legitimately be said about an issue and are not weasel words. You need to assess the context carefully.

29. Weaseling • Three years later, does President Bush “weasel” on his earlier justification for the Iraq war or does he “clarify?” http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZKd71JxEYzE

30. Minimizing or Downplaying • Words and devices that add no argument but only suggest that a source or a claim is less significant than what the claim or premises suggest is called downplaying or minimizing, e.g. Are you going to vote for a “hockey mom?” Or “just another liberal?” • You can sometimes spot this by a use of words or phrases like “so-called,” “merely,” “mere,” or “just another.” • Downplayers often also make use of stereotypes. “That’s just Dick Cheney”

31. Ridicule / Sarcasm • Ridicule and sarcasm is a powerful rhetorical device (often called The Old Horse Laugh Fallacy). • Keep in mind that it adds absolutely nothing to the logical force of an argument. • Questioning the “intelligence” of the person that makes a claim is logically irrelevant to whether the claim itself is true or false. Video

32. Ridicule / Sarcasm • It is interesting after watching a spirited debate (for example, one of political candidates) to analyze whether the person who came off more “humorous” or “entertaining” and the one whom we might have thought “won” the debate actually took advantage of his opponent unfairly through this method. • If so, we should re-examine ourselves whether we were thinking critically during the debate. Video

33. Hyperbole • Hyperbole basically means exaggeration or an extravagant overstatement. • e.g. “My boss is a fascist dictator. He won’t let anybody do things their own way. It is always his way or the highway.” • This kind of statement, considered for exactly what it says, is silly and lacks credibility.

34. Hyperbole • Interestingly, hyperbole often works even when no one believes it. In this example, we probably don’t believe the statement is actually true, but we would probably be reluctant to take a job working for this guy thinking something like “where there’s smoke, there must be fire.” • Be careful: As critical thinkers, we have no more reason to believe the claim that the boss is a problematic one to work for than we do to believe the hyperbole. • BREAKING NEWS!

35. Proof Surrogates • A proof surrogate is an expression that suggests that there is evidence or authority for a claim without actually citing such evidence of authority. • e.g. “informed sources say,” ”it is obvious that” or “studies show” are typical proof surrogates. • Proof surrogates are not substitutes for evidence or authority.

36. Proof Surrogates • The introduction of a proof surrogate does not support an argument. • They may suggest sloppy research or even propaganda. • The use of proof surrogates, on the other hand, should not be interpreted that evidence does not exist or could not be given. You just don’t know.

37. Never drive in a storm without wiper blades.

38. & Never go into the fierce storms of an argument without your WIPER SHIELD to protect you from the evil forms of rhetoric devices: W easeling, I nnuendo, P roof Surrogates E xplanations, Analogies & Definitions (Rhetorical) R idicule/Sarcasm S tereotypes H yperbole I mage Rhetoric E uphemisms/Dysphemisms L oaded Questions, and D ownplaying/Minimizing