William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture 6 th Edition

1. William Stallings Computer Organization and Architecture6th Edition Chapter 8 Operating System Support

2. Objectives and Functions • An operating system is a program that controls the execution of application programs and acts as an interface between the user of a computer and the computer hardware. • The OS has two objectives: • Convenience • Making the computer easier to use • Efficiency • Allowing better use of computer resources

3. Layers and Views of a Computer System

4. Operating System Services • The OS provides services: • Program creation • Program execution • Access to I/O devices • Controlled access to files • System access • Error detection and response • Accounting

5. O/S as a Resource Manager

6. Types of Operating System • Interactive • Batch • Single program (Uni-programming) • Multi-programming (Multi-tasking)

7. Early Systems • Late 1940s to mid 1950s • No Operating System • Programs interact directly with hardware • Two main problems: • Scheduling • Setup time

8. Simple Batch Systems • Resident Monitor program • Users submit jobs to operator • Operator batches jobs • Monitor controls sequence of events to process batch • When one job is finished, control returns to Monitor which reads next job • Monitor handles scheduling

9. Memory Layout for Resident Monitor

10. Job Control Language • Instructions to Monitor • Usually denoted by $ • e.g. • $JOB • $FTN • ... Some Fortran instructions • $LOAD • $RUN • ... Some data • $END

11. Desirable Hardware Features • Memory protection • To protect the Monitor • Timer • To prevent a job monopolizing the system • Privileged instructions • Only executed by Monitor • e.g. I/O • Interrupts • Allows for relinquishing and regaining control

12. Multi-programmed Batch Systems • I/O devices very slow • When one program is waiting for I/O, another can use the CPU

13. Single Program

14. Multi-Programming with Two Programs

15. Multi-Programming with Three Programs

16. Utilization

17. Time Sharing Systems • Allow users to interact directly with the computer • i.e. Interactive • Multi-programming allows a number of users to interact with the computer

18. Scheduling • Key to multi-programming • Long term • Medium term • Short term • I/O

19. Long Term Scheduling • Determines which programs are submitted for processing • i.e. controls the degree of multi-programming • Once submitted, a job becomes a process for the short term scheduler • (or it becomes a swapped out job for the medium term scheduler)

20. Medium Term Scheduling • Part of the swapping function (later…) • Usually based on the need to manage multi-programming • If no virtual memory, memory management is also an issue

21. Short Term Scheduler • Dispatcher • Fine grained decisions of which job to execute next • i.e. which job actually gets to use the processor in the next time slot

22. Process States

23. Process Control Block • Identifier • State • Priority • Program counter • Memory pointers • Context data • I/O status • Accounting information

24. PCB Diagram

25. Key Elements of O/S

26. Process Scheduling

27. Memory Management • Uni-program • Memory split into two • One for Operating System (monitor) • One for currently executing program • Multi-program • “User” part is sub-divided and shared among active processes

28. Swapping • Problem: I/O is so slow compared with CPU that even in multi-programming system, CPU can be idle most of the time • Solutions: • Increase main memory • Expensive • Leads to larger programs • Swapping

29. What is Swapping? • Long term queue of processes stored on disk • Processes “swapped” in as space becomes available • As a process completes it is moved out of main memory • If none of the processes in memory are ready (i.e. all I/O blocked) • Swap out a blocked process to intermediate queue • Swap in a ready process or a new process • But swapping is an I/O process...

30. Partitioning • Splitting memory into sections to allocate to processes (including Operating System) • Fixed-sized partitions • May not be equal size • Process is fitted into smallest hole that will take it (best fit) • Some wasted memory • Leads to variable sized partitions

31. FixedPartitioning

32. Variable Sized Partitions (1) • Allocate exactly the required memory to a process • This leads to a hole at the end of memory, too small to use • Only one small hole - less waste • When all processes are blocked, swap out a process and bring in another • New process may be smaller than swapped out process • Another hole

33. Variable Sized Partitions (2) • Eventually have lots of holes (fragmentation) • Solutions: • Coalesce - Join adjacent holes into one large hole • Compaction - From time to time go through memory and move all hole into one free block (c.f. disk de-fragmentation)

34. Effect of Dynamic Partitioning

35. Relocation • No guarantee that process will load into the same place in memory • Instructions contain addresses • Locations of data • Addresses for instructions (branching) • Logical address - relative to beginning of program • Physical address - actual location in memory (this time) • Automatic conversion using base address

36. Paging • Split memory into equal sized, small chunks -page frames • Split programs (processes) into equal sized small chunks - pages • Allocate the required number page frames to a process • Operating System maintains list of free frames • A process does not require contiguous page frames • Use page table to keep track

37. Logical and Physical Addresses - Paging

38. Virtual Memory • Demand paging • Do not require all pages of a process in memory • Bring in pages as required • Page fault • Required page is not in memory • Operating System must swap in required page • May need to swap out a page to make space • Select page to throw out based on recent history

39. Thrashing • Too many processes in too little memory • Operating System spends all its time swapping • Little or no real work is done • Disk light is on all the time • Solutions • Good page replacement algorithms • Reduce number of processes running • Fit more memory

40. Bonus • We do not need all of a process in memory for it to run • We can swap in pages as required • So - we can now run processes that are bigger than total memory available! • Main memory is called real memory • User/programmer sees much bigger memory - virtual memory

41. Page Table Structure

42. Translation Lookaside Buffer • Every virtual memory reference causes two physical memory access • Fetch page table entry • Fetch data • Use special cache for page table • TLB

43. TLB Operation

44. TLB and Cache Operation

45. Segmentation • Paging is not (usually) visible to the programmer • Segmentation is visible to the programmer • Usually different segments allocated to program and data • May be a number of program and data segments

46. Advantages of Segmentation • Simplifies handling of growing data structures • Allows programs to be altered and recompiled independently, without re-linking and re-loading • Lends itself to sharing among processes • Lends itself to protection • Some systems combine segmentation with paging

47. Pentium II • Hardware for segmentation and paging • Unsegmented unpaged • virtual address = physical address • Low complexity • High performance • Unsegmented paged • Memory viewed as paged linear address space • Protection and management via paging • Berkeley UNIX • Segmented unpaged • Collection of local address spaces • Protection to single byte level • Translation table needed is on chip when segment is in memory • Segmented paged • Segmentation used to define logical memory partitions subject to access control • Paging manages allocation of memory within partitions • Unix System V

48. Pentium II Address Translation Mechanism

49. Pentium II Segmentation • Each virtual address is 16-bit segment and 32-bit offset • 2 bits of segment are protection mechanism • 14 bits specify segment • Unsegmented virtual memory 232 = 4Gbytes • Segmented 246=64 terabytes • Can be larger – depends on which process is active • Half (8K segments of 4Gbytes) is global • Half is local and distinct for each process

50. Pentium II Protection • Protection bits give 4 levels of privilege • 0 most protected, 3 least • Use of levels software dependent • Usually level 3 for applications, level 1 for O/S and level 0 for kernel (level 2 not used) • Level 2 may be used for apps that have internal security e.g. database • Some instructions only work in level 0