The Art of Rhetoric

The Art of Rhetoric “Rhetoric is the art, practice, and study of human communication.” -- Andrea Lunsford

What is Rhetoric? • (n) the art of speaking or writing effectively • According to Aristotle, rhetoric is “the ability, in each particular case, to see the available means of persuasion.” • He described the three main forms of rhetoric as: Ethos, Logos, and Pathos “Rhetoric is the study of misunderstandings and their remedies.” -- I.A. Richards

Speaker PURPOSE Audience Subject The Rhetorical Triangle Logos

The Persuasive Appeals • The best arguments rely on using three persuasive appeals—logical (logos), ethical (ethos), and emotional (pathos)—and a savvy writer will know when to use each in order to accomplish his intended purpose or purposes.

Analyzing PURPOSE Ask these questions when deciding on purpose: • Does the author wish for the audience to think about or to reconsider an idea or issue? If so, exactly what are the ideas or issues, and what new view does the author wish for the audience to consider?

Analyzing PURPOSE • Does the speaker want the targeted audience to take action? If so, exactly what action? • Does the speaker or writer want the targeted audience to feel a certain way? If so, exactly what emotion or emotions does he/she attempt to evoke?

Persuasive Appeal: ETHOS • This is an ETHICAL or value-based appeal (think ETHICS) • Speaker/writer appeals to own credibility and character • It draws upon the audience’s virtue, morals, and prudence

Ethos: Core Questions • How does the writer or speaker present herself/himself as reliable, good? • How does the speaker or writer aim to build bridges with the audience or opposition?

Qualities of Effective Ethos • Controlled diction (avoidance of inflammatory language) • Makes qualified claims (notes exceptions to rules; uses terms such as “perhaps, some, many”) • Restates opposing views fairly/accurately • Associates self with relevant authorities; makes relevant allusions • Uses first-person plural pronouns “we” and “us” to establish a connection between writer & audience.

Persuasive Appeal: LOGOS • This is a logical appeal (think LOGIC) • It draws upon the audience’s sense of reason using facts, statistics, and evidence • Everyday arguments rely heavily on ethos and pathos, but academic arguments rely more on logos

Logos: Core Question • How has the writer or speaker attempted to appeal to the audience’s reasoning or logic? • This is usually accomplished through Inductive Reasoning: specific to general conclusion Deductive Reasoning: general to specific conclusion

Qualities of Effective Logos • To Appeal to Logic a paper or speech would include the following: • Theoretical, abstract language • Denotative meaning/reasons • Literal and historical analogies • Definitions • Factual data/statistics • Quotations • Citations from experts and authorities • Informed opinions • Tradition • Cause/effect

Concession • A concession is an expression of concern for the feelings of those who may disagree with the writer’s position. • Using concession is a good way to overcome the reader’s resistance to a controversial position. • Concession shows the writer/speaker to be a logical thinker and a concerned, fair-minded person who realizes that every argument has two sides.

More on Concession • Using concession takes away the major weapon of the opposition. The following terms are effective in making concessions: • Admittedly • Even though • I can’t argue with • Undoubtedly • I concede that • Granted • Certainly…, but • Yes…, but • It goes without saying that • While it is true that

Counterargument Counterargument has three parts: • Acknowledging—writers let readers know they are aware of the readers’ position which is against the writers’ (concession) • Accommodating—writers accept objections to their arguments (“setting them up”) • Refuting—then last, writers propose their objections to readers’ position (“shooting them down”) *Refutation is asserting that an opponent’s arguments are wrong and arguing against them.)

Persuasive Appeal: PATHOS • This is an EMOTIONAL appeal • It draws upon the audience’s feelings and sentimentality • There may be any number of emotions involved: love, fear, patriotism, guilt, hate, or joy • Although the pathetic appeal can be manipulative, it is the cornerstone of moving people to action.

Qualities of PATHOS • Connotative diction, imagery, metaphors • Appeals to pity, compassion—the qualities that unite all humans • Carefully crafted syntax such as parallelism, anaphora, etc. to appeal to the reader’s sense of order and control

Rhetoric • Although the components of rhetoric sound complex, at its most basic level RHETORIC is simply language that effectively accomplishes its purpose

Work Cited Advanced Placement Strategies, Laying the Foundation. Dallas, TX: Advanced Placement Strategies, Inc.,

The Art of Rhetoric