Next Unit: Evolution & History of Life- Chapters: 22-26 Chapter 22: Darwinian View of Evolution

1. Next Unit: Evolution & History of Life- Chapters: 22-26 Chapter 22: Darwinian View of Evolution Chapter 23: Microevolution &Allele frequency changes in Populations Chapter 24: Macroevolution (Speciation) Chapter 25 & 26: Mapping out the History of Life through systematics & Phylogenic relationships.

2. Chapter 22: Darwinian Evolution (The Beginning) Charles Darwin: -Born in England -Medical School -Clergyman -Naturalist (botany) -Explorer (HMS Beagle) http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/id/program.html

3. Introductory Questions #1 • Why is evolution such a controversial subject? • Name the key founders (original people) for the idea evolution. • Name four major pieces of evidence that Darwin considered in formulating his theory of natural selection. • Name three people that influenced Darwin’s thinking as he developed his theory. • Name the four key observations Darwin made. • Why is fossil evidence considered the “most direct” evidence for evolution? Approximately, how many fossil species have been discovered? • What are the three methods for generating a date of a fossil?

4. Descent with Modification (Evolution) Evolution: the change over time of the genetic composition of populations Natural selection: populations of organisms can change over the generations if individuals having certain heritable traits leave more offspring than others (differential reproductive success) Evolutionary adaptations: a prevalence of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms’ survival and reproduction November 24, 1859

5. Introductory Questions #1 • Why is evolution such a controversial subject? • Name the key founders (original people) for the idea evolution. • Name four major pieces of evidence that Darwin considered in formulating his theory of natural selection. • Name three people that influenced Darwin’s thinking as he developed his theory. • Name the four key observations Darwin made. • Why is fossil evidence considered the “most direct” evidence for evolution? Approximately, how many fossil species have been discovered? • What are the three methods for generating a date of a fossil?

6. Major Issues & Questions about Evolution • Our Concept of time is obscure: putting into perspective and grasping the significance of long periods of time such as 100 yrs? 1000yrs? 10,000yrs? Or even a million years. • The most difficult concept that Darwin proposed was that all living things are related by a common ancestor. • How would respond to this question? • When studying life do you include man with all living things or do you separate man?

7. Linnaeus: taxonomy (binomial Nomenclature) Hutton: gradualism Lamarck: Use & disuse (acquired Charact) Malthus: populations & resources Cuvier: Paleontology (fossils) Lyell: uniformitarianism Darwin: Natural selection Mendel: inheritance Wallace: natural selection Evolutionary History

8. Historical Perspectives on Evolution • Aristotle Species are “fixed” & unchanging • Linnaeus Founder of taxonomy (binomial nomenclature) • Cuvier Began the study of fossils (Paleontology) Catastrophism • Charles Lyell Uniformitarianism-same process occur today • Hutton Gradualism • Erasmus Darwin Environment changes causes life to evolve • Lamarck Law of use & disuse, inheritance of acquired characteristics • Henslow Darwin’s mentor at Cambridge (Botanist) • FitzRoy Captain of HMS Beagle • Malthus Populations struggle for resources (competition) • Wallace formulated same theory of natural selection

9. Influences on Darwin’s Theory • Lyell (Geologist) • Earth was ancient & ever- changing

10. Influences on Darwin’s Theory • Malthus (Economist) • “Survival of the Fittest” • Political & Philosophical Renaissance Video Clip

11. Observations made by Darwin • Variations exist in the population (heritable) • Reproduce Exponentially (if all are successful) • Populations tend to be stable • Resources are (become) limited • Differential Reproductive success (selection) • Artificial selection (breeding) modifies adaptations

12. Galapagos Islands • Noted subtle differences in finches & tortoises, by island & compared to mainland

13. Adaptions to Environment

14. Phylogenetic Tree of Darwin’s Finches Common Ground Finch

15. Examples of Descent with Modification Based on Fossil Evidence

16. Major pieces of Evidence for Evolution • Biogeographical Distribution • Comparative Anatomy (homologous structures & vestigial organs) • Comparative Embryology • Fossils Post Darwin: “Neo Darwinism” also called synthetic theory • Molecular Genetics: DNA/Amino acid Sequencing • Chromosomal Changes • Mutations

17. Evolution evidence: Biogeography • Geographical distribution of species • Examples: Islands vs. Mainland Australia Continents These organisms evolved independently of each other in similar environments

18. Evolution Evidence: Comparative Anatomy • Homologous structures (homology) • Descent from a common ancestor • Vestigial organs Ex: whale/snake hindlimbs; wings on flightless birds

19. Convergent Evolution due to similar niches-same structures form w/same purposes Similar characteristics formed from similar environments with different original structures. Structures are used for a similar function **Similar structure differentorigin

20. Evolution Evidence: Comparative Embryology • Pharyngeal pouches, ‘tails’ as embryos

21. Fossil Evidence Fossils: remains and traces left behind by organisms -most direct evidence for evolution -provides a record of ancient organisms that have existed -able to generate a timeline -observe the presence of vestigial structures -ancestral descent and lineages can be generated -more aquatic fossils vs. terrestrial have been found Types of Fossils: imprints, hair, nails, tissue, and other remains Locations: sedimentary rock, ice, amber, tar, quicksand, petrification

22. Evolution Evidence: The Fossil Record • Succession of forms over time • Transitional links • Vertebrate descent

23. Dating Fossils • Location within the rock strata (use index fossil) • Radioactive isotopes (half-life) • K40 half life is 1.3 billion years argon • U235 half life is 704 million years → lead • U238 half life is 4.5 billion → lead • C14 half life is 5730 years  nitrogen

24. Extinct Whale w/ small hind limbs

25. Evolution of the Horse

26. Issues/Arguments with Fossil Evidence • Record is Incomplete • Transitional fossils are lacking • Dating techniques are not very accurate (wide ranges) • Fossils are difficult to find • Conditions must be perfect to form & remain intact • Provides evidence of species that existed but are now extinct (ex. dinosaurs) • What if fossils were never found?

27. Evolution Evidence of Today & Molecular Biology • Similarities in DNA, proteins, genes, and gene products • Common genetic code

28. Human & Chimp Comparison of Chromosome #2 http://www.teachersdomain.org/special/evol07-ex/ Human Chromosome #2

29. Molecular evidence for common Ancestry

30. Introductory Questions #3 • What is meant by homoplastic features? • Organisms that are from separate ancestries adapt to their environments similarly from similar structures. This is an example of . • How many vestigial structures have been observed in humans. Name three of them. • Why is biogeography (distribution of species) important evidence for evolution? • Why is the chimpanzee considered to be the closest living relative of humans? • How is a phylogenetic tree generated and what sort of information does it provide?

31. Key Points to Remember • A population evolves, not an individual organism • Natural Selection occurs through interactions between individuals • Variations in a population are heritable that are not“acquired in their lifetime” • Natural selection is the “mechanism” of evolution • The accumulation of small gradual changes over long periods of time results in larger changes (adaptations) • A new species emerges with slightly different characteristics usually because of being isolated. (Galapagos Islands) • How and why organisms are able to transmit heritable traits to the next generation was not explained by Darwin. • Evolution can only modify existing structures.

32. Final words…... • “Absence of evidence is not evidence of absence.”

33. Chapter 23-Microevolution

34. Population genetics • Population: a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species • Species: a group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring • Gene pool: the total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time • Population genetics: the study of genetic changes in populations • Modern synthesis/neo-Darwinism • “Individuals are selected, but populations evolve.”

35. Hardy-Weinberg Principle • Model proposed in 1908 • Represents an ideal situation • Seldom occurs in nature • Mathematical model is used to compare populations • Allows biologists to calculate allele frequencies in a population • Serves as a model for the genetic structure of a non-evolving population (equilibrium) Represents “genetic equilibrium” If the allele frequencies deviate from the predicted values of HW then the population is said to be evolving.

36. Hardy-Weinberg Theorem 5 conditions for Equilibrium -Very large population size - No migration - No net mutations - Random mating - No natural selection **when all these are met then a population is not evolving

37. Hardy-Weinberg Equation • p=frequency of one allele (A); q=frequency of the other allele (a) • p+q=1.0 • (p=1-q & q=1-p) • P2=frequency of AA genotype • 2pq=frequency of Aa • q2=frequency of aa genotype; p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1.0

38. Solving & Analyzing HW Principle • Problem: If you had 90 individuals that possessed the recessive condition in a population of 1000 individuals, determine the frequency of dominant and recessive alleles present in the population as well as the genotypic and phenotypic frequencies. • Always start with the # of homozygous recessive alleles - aa = 90 and q2 = 90/1000 which is 0.09 - a = square root of 0.09 which is 0.3 - A = (1 – 0.3) which is 0.7 - AA = (0.7) 2 which is 0.49 - Aa = ??? **Remember that p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1 (AA) (Aa) (aa)

39. Microevolution • Involves small or minor changes in the allele frequencies within a population • Five processes have been identified: • Nonrandom mating (inbreeding & assortative mating) • Gene flow (migration between populations) • Genetic drift (bottleneck effect) • Mutations (unpredictable change in DNA) • Natural selection (differential reproduction) **certain alleles are favored over others in nature

40. Microevolution A change in the gene pool of a population over a succession of generations Genetic drift: changes in the gene pool of a small population due to chance (usually reduces genetic variability)

41. Molecular Clock-Pg 385 • Used to estimate the time of divergence between two closely related groups when their common ancestor could have been present. • Mutations tend to occur at a steady uniform rate over millions of years for closely related species. • These alterations in the DNA sequence used with geological data • Allows scientists to reconstruct the evolutionary history of a group and describe its phylogeny • A single molecular clock for all genes and all species cannot be established. (Why?)